Environment

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Co-Existential Harmony for solving Environmental problems : a philosophical and conceptual study

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Prof Surendra PathakProf Surendra Pathak

Director, Research IASE Deemed University
Head, Department of value Education, IASE Deemed University
 
 
 

Mother earth is considered one of the most beautiful and harmonious planets in the Universe. Earth may be the only planet in our galaxy that has enough water and

environment for the further evolution of life, that is plant, animal and human order. Naturally, life on earth is in co-existential harmony1. Unfortunately, global human society is suffering from various prob- lems due to the ignorance of this harmony. Nature cares, loves and supports the human order and recip- rocally, humanity must take care of its only beautiful planet. We must follow the law of mutual fulfilment. It is necessary for the survival of humanity.

Unfortunately, directionless and purposeless techno-scientific development damages the natu- ral-ecological and environmental harmony, and cre- ates ecological and environmental imbalances.2 The climate of the world is changing very fast. Catas- trophes are taking place almost every day, and unknown hazardous diseases are surfacing every- where. The only hope is that every person is capable of influencing the world in some way and that this influence would be positive. We can imagine the seri- ousness of the problem today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. Taken together, the ecological footprint of all nations in the year 2001 is almost 20% bigger than the ecological capac- ity of the Earth. “Moderate UN scenarios suggest that if current population and consumption trends continue, by the mid 2030s we will need the equiva- lent of two Earths to support us. And of course, we only have one” .3 A poll survey report published in Washington Post ‘Mass Extinction Underway, Majority of Biologists Say’ “Amajority of the nation’s biologists are convinced that a mass extinction of plants and animals is underway that poses a major threat to humans in the next century. The rapid disappearance of species was ranked as one of the planet’s gravest environmental worries, surpassing pollution, global warming and the thinning of the ozone layer.” 4 So we see, at this rate the human race could one day perish if we don’t look after our planet.

However, human centric philosophy ‘Mad- hayatha Darshan Sahastitvavad’5 elucidates Coex- istence, that is the existential/natural order among the physical-material world, plant/pranic and animal world. The relationships among the material, pranic (cells) /plants and animal orders, are mutually ful- filling and mutually enriching and this process is cyclic (avartansheel) in nature. Right understanding between Nature and Humanity will be necessary to fulfil the relationship with all these orders. A.Nagraj (2008) further argues that the whole of ‘existence is in the form of co-existence’6, as units submerged in space. Each unit is self-organized within itself (Niyam, niyantran, santulan sahit nishchit aacha- ran ke sath) and fulfils its harmonious relationship with all other units/order, except the human order. The ultimate desire of human beings is also to live in the harmony with rest of the nature. It means that noone has to create the harmony. It is already available. It exists in the form of Co-existential Harmony. One only needs to understand existence and align oneself with it. It is only by understanding these processes in nature, human beings can sur- vive and flourish. All the three orders are fulfilling their relationship with human beings. Subsequently human beings must organize their life style to fulfil the other three orders (figure 1).

Figure 01

Dr. Sandeep Pandey says “Madhyastha Darshan iden- tifies two distinct and independent components in a human being – the material body and the consciousness (‘jeevan’ or ‘chaitanya’). Spiritualism or sciences do not recognize their independent existence. While spiritualism is God-centered and mystical in nature, and science is matter-centred and uncertain in nature, but Madhyastha Darshan is human- centred and deterministic in nature. Since spiritualism and science have failed to universally satisfy the quest for knowl- edge of human beings in a manner, which could result in a just human order, there was a need to look beyond these two major streams of thinking which have guided human beings so far on earth.” 7

Socio-political, economic and personal choices must be based on the laws of physics (natural laws) in order to be in harmony with nature including human life. This basic principle was recognized by Karl-Henrik. Heargues (in ‘Educating a Nation: the Natural Step’) that “It also happens that nearly all of our natural resources have been created by cells. Over billions of years, a toxic stew of inorganic compounds has been transformed by cells into mineral deposits, forests, fish, soil, breathable air and water – the very foundation of our economy and of our healthy existence. With sunlight as the sole energy supply, those natural resources have been created in growing, self-sustaining cycles – the “waste” from one species providing nutrition for another (i.e. mutual ful- fillment). The only processes that we can rely on indefi- nitely are cyclical; all linear processes must eventually come to an end. For roughly the past hundred years, humans have been disrupting the cyclical processes of nature at an accelerating pace. All human societies are, in varying degrees, now processing natural resources in a linear direction.”8

Problems Facing Global Society

As we know that “Every year, six million children die from malnutrition before their fifth birthday. Every 3.6 seconds, about the time it’ll take you to read this sentence, another human being has died of starvation. five million people die from water borne illness every year. Almost 40 percent of the world’s population does not have basic sanitation and over one billion people still use unsafe sources of drink- ing water. HIv/AIDS takes the lives of 6,000 people every single day, as 8,200 more are infected with it. Every thirty seconds, another African child dies of malaria, which accounts for the deaths of more than one million children a year. A woman in sub-Saharan Africa has a 1 in 16 chance of dying in childbirth. Her North American counterpart has a 1 in 3,700 risk. More than 40 percent of African women do not have access to basic education, although it’s proven that if a girl is educated for six years or more, as an adult her prenatal care, postnatal care, and childbirth sur- vival rates will dramatically and constantly improve. Educated women are more likely to vaccinate their children. Every minute, a woman somewhere dies in pregnancy or childbirth. That’s 1,400 women every single day and 529,000 women each year dying from pregnancy-related causes. About five women have already died as you read this.” 1

A human monoculture without the support of other species is not viable. Anthropogenic, human caused mass extinction of species is a threat to human survival17. The Millennium Ecosystem Assess- ment project reports on the loss of species in the last 30 years of the 20th century. 18 Modern life-style and trends of socio-politico-economic systems designed by materialistic ideologies are further aggravating the social & environmental problems.

In view of addressing environmental problems, the World bank economist Jean-francois Rischard 9 (2002) seriously argues that the next 20 years will be of critical importance to our planet. The resolu- tion of global problems over the next decade will determine the fate of our planet for future genera- tions. He points out that the twenty most pressing issues facing the global community, can be classified in three groups, 1. Issues involving the global commu- nity, i.e. global warming, biodiversity and ecosystem losses, fisheries depletion, deforestation, water defi- cits, maritime safety and pollution, 2. Issues requiring global commitments, that is massive steps in the fight against poverty, peacekeeping, conflict prevention, combating terrorism, education for all, global infec- tious diseases, digital divide, natural disaster preven- tion and mitigation and, 3. Issues needing a global regulatory approach, that is reinventing taxation for the twenty-first century, biotechnology rules, global financial architecture, illegal drugs, trade, invest- ment, and competition rules, intellectual property rights, e-commerce rules, international labor and migration.

All this demands a drastic paradigm shift in the materialistic modern education orientation, from conflict centric to harmony centric education. And the priority, approaches and mainstream develop- ment strategies of the nation states must be on the basis of human centric existential harmony, that is wisdom based sustainable and cyclic development and a balance between production and the con- sumption of natural resources. The tendency of the consumerist global market to exploit the natural resources for profit alone for generating illusionary paper money at nature’s cost forms the core of the problem.

On the other hand, Russian Philosopher Alexan- der Chumakov believes that “At the dawn of global civil society, the test for humanity is to achieve unity while preserving cultural differences as well as the distinctiveness of nations and peoples. Such unity can be reached only by recognizing human values, especially human rights. However, these rights must be strictly determined and more than mere obliga- tions. Hence, the most important task for philosophy is to develop foundations and principles for a world society and to formulate a global consciousness and a humanistic worldview that adequately reflects the realities of our epoch. Our action must increasingly be based on an acknowledgment of global values.” 10

As suggested by most of the secular humanists solutions of global problems include: upholding and strengthening international law, application of the rule of law in combating terrorism, promoting secular values, laws and constitutions worldwide, asserting the rights of children to be free of religious indoctrination, rational solutions to global problems based on international cooperation, strengthening of the ‘Kyoto Agreement’ to provide an international carbon tax and the voice against unilateral pre-emp- tive military action, the policy of any country that seeks to promote a sectarian religious agenda, poli- cies based on the presumption of religious superior- ity, theocracies of any kind, be they Judaic, Christian or Islamic.

To achieve this, it requires a shift in our orienta- tion from discriminatory/sectarianism (race, class, caste, religion, and gender ) to a human centric mind- set, which can be achieved through co-existential harmony centric global and universal educational content for all. This will create a conducive envi- ronment for common humane civil code, universal- global laws and legislations (a common constitution for all humanity) to resolve the disastrous social and environmental problems plaguing our planet.

Today’s global economic-political and educa- tional policies and activities are influencing the global climate system. various research data indicate that the earth’s surface temperature is rising. This increase can be attributed and caused by an increase in greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. It is becoming apparent that these climatic changes are negatively affecting the physical and biological sys- tems worldwide. Charles H. Southwick 11 , a well known ecologist, argues about how we, as humans, affect global ecosystems and how these changes impact our health, behavior, economics and politics.

Winfried K. Rudloff, of governors State Univer- sity suggests, “On one hand, globalization in science and education is rapidly taking place on account of the World Wide Web and the Internet. On the other hand, such high technology-based education is still in its infancy and mostly concerned with run-of- the-mill subjects that lack focus on urgent global problems. Specifically, most urgent problems such as resource depletion, environmental pollution, over- population, deforestation, the greenhouse effect, unchecked militarism, and rampant nuclear pro- liferation are studied to provide our students with a better understanding of the complexity of these interrelated issues. They should learn how to analyze problems of global importance and find creative solu- tions. After all, they are the generation of the future which they have to shape through knowledge and state-of-the-arts skills.”12

The big question is what is the underlining cause of such economical and political behavior? Human centric philosophy of coexistence, that is ‘Madhayatha Darshan Sahastitvavad’, explains that, consumerist social behav- ior, profit centric economies, sex-lust centric psychologi- cal content of media, and uncertainty, disorder, chaos and conflict based ideologies and theories of modern education content comprise the root of this problematic behavior.

lester brown argues that sometimes the scien- tific predictions are uncertain due to the complexity of an issue, such as the present state of the world. Human civilization is endangered by anthropogenic environmental degradation, and by destructive social and individual conflicts. Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans.13

A. Nagraj proposes that each existential phe- nomenon is self organized, the law of nature is constant, stable and that the evolutionary process in nature is definite. Hence the current problems faced by humanity can not only be predicted but also resolved.

Homer-Dixon states that “Environmental scien- tists have been saying for some time that the global economy is being slowly undermined by environ- mental trends of human origin, including shrinking forests, expanding deserts, falling water tables, erod- ing soils, collapsing fisheries, rising temperatures, melting ice, rising seas, and increasingly destructive storms” 14.

The links between environmental change and acute conflict will help us to evaluate our theory of environ- mental change and its contribution to conflict. Scarcity of resources from the environment (clean air, water, food, energy, land etc.) leads to violent conflicts within nations, and to war and terrorism between nations.15 Neo-Malthusianism have argued that global environ- mental change leads to scarcities of resources that could lead to societal collapse. Somalia, Rwanda, and Haiti serve as poster children for such arguments. 16 They also demonstrate how violent conflicts emerge indirectly from resource scarcity. Already today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. This situation arises when there is a lack of understanding of co-exis- tence, mutually fulfilling and mutually enriching cyclic process (avartansheel) in nature and instead a mutually unfulfilling and disorderly relationship of humans with the rest of the nature. Moreover the production model especially industrial, adopted by modern humans, has disturbed the law of natural cyclicity which results in ecological imbalance.

In view of the philosophy of co-existential har- mony, the human intervention through science and technology into the existential order (such as atom, cells, and genes) can lead to massive destruc- tion and uncertain behavior of nature. This can eventually lead to the collapse of civilization. The major factor in this outcome will be the activities propelled by nuclear fission and fusion. The advent of nuclear weapons might lead to mutually assured destruction, and therefore the resolution of con- flicts by the rule of international law has become a necessity. Well known scientist Carl Sagan, in his widely acclaimed television series “The Nuclear Winter” (1983), explored the unforeseen and devas- tating physical and chemical effects of even a small- scale nuclear war on the earth’s biosphere and life on earth. War and terrorism within and between nations is a critical global issue. An all-out nuclear war causing a nuclear winter would be a catastro- phe for humankind; it would not only create social chaos, but also ruin the life-supporting ecosystem beyond repair 18. It is now almost 40 years since the invention of nuclear weapons. We have not yet experienced a global thermonuclear war, although on more than one occasion we have come tremendously close. I do not think our luck can hold forever. Men and machines are fallible, as recent events remind us. fools and madmen do exist, and sometimes rise to power. Concentrating always on the near future, we have ignored the long-term consequences of our actions. We have placed our civilization and our spe- cies in jeopardy.

Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans. lester brown says in ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble.’ “Our global civilization today is on an eco- nomic path that is environmentally unsustainable, a path that is leading us toward economic decline and eventual collapse.” 19

The use of fossil fuels has advanced technology- based civilization to unprecedented destruction levels, because the extraction of fossils fuels cre- ates tectonic disturbances and also releases CO2, which creates the atmospheric imbalance leading to global warming. However today, we begin to realize the consequences of our energy choices may lead to climate change, and the demise of a fossil fuel based civilization. So the most appropriate alter- native for our energy source should be renewable energy. long term systemic thinking and appropri- ate action at the global and local levels are urgently needed for achieving sustainability and civility in the world community. Sustainability is the overarching issue. It rests on three pillars: ecological, societal, and personal integrity.

billions of human beings on the Earth are unhappy due to their inability to satisfy their basic personal needs (physiological needs, safety and secu- rity needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs) as defined by A. Maslow.20 Maslow has been a very inspirational figure in personality theories. In the 1960’s in particular, people were tired of the reduc- tionist, mechanistic messages of the behaviorists and physiological psychologists. They were look- ing for meaning and purpose in their lives, even a higher, more mystical meaning. Maslow was one of the pioneers in that movement to bring the human being back into psychology and the person back into personality!

At approximately the same time, another move- ment was getting underway, one inspired by some of the very things that turned Maslow off: computers and information processing, as well as very ratio- nalistic theories such as Piaget’s cognitive develop- ment theory and Noam Chomsky’s linguistics. but the philosophy of co-existential harmony explains two types of human needs: material needs (food, clothing, shelter, and material means) for the body, which is fulfilled through agriculture and industrial production, and non-material needs for conscious- ness (trust, respect, love, and understanding),21 which can be fulfilled only by understanding Niyam, Niyantran, Santulan in the natural order and Nyay, Dharma (order), and Satya in the relationship.

In fact, every human wants to live with perennial happiness and prosperity. Almost all human efforts and time are spent in order to ensure physical (mate- rial) comfort with the inherent presumption that comforts will lead to happiness. If we look into this presumption, what appears is that in the case of lack of comfort one feels deprived. but it is well known that having enough comforts cannot ensure happi- ness. Thus it becomes essential to address the need of happiness and comfort separately. Consequently, one must understand happiness, comfort and the difference between these two needs. Thus perennial happiness can be achieved by living in synchrony with co-existence.

The role of the global civil society

Since early in Indian civilization, there has been an earnest desire for realizing Vasudhev Kutambakam (a single global family). In the modern sense this is a global civil society and “global citizenship”, which are widely prevalent in contemporary intellectual discourses. The Chief Editor of the International Journal of Sociology françois Houtart says “the debate on the limits, possibilities and opportunities facing civil society today is an open one. The issue was discussed during the World Social forum in January in Porto Alegre, brazil, which brought together spokespeo- ple and representatives of civil society around the world.”

The concept of civil society is very fashionable at the moment. It is so widely accepted as to allow all kinds of interpretations, while at the same time covering all kinds of ambivalences.

When the World bank talks of civil society, it is referring to a completely different reality than the one expressed by the Thai Poor People’s forum or the brazilian Movement of landless Peasants. It is necessary to analyze this term ‘civil society’ away from the slogans. Civil society is the arena for social struggles and thus for defining collective challenges, but before reflecting on how to build it we should first take a close look at the different ways the con- cept is currently interpreted. Global civil society represents the potential of transnational civil society to enhance democracy in global governance. Numerous works are devoted to the role of new ideas, norms, and discourse of transnational advocacy networks 22,23,24.

The development of transnational networks may help to create new identities and awareness of global society that would improve the current discriminatory codes and practices based on established political boundaries. Richard Price25 implies that research into transna- tional civil society tends to overemphasize the effect of particular campaigns that aspire to liberal and progressive moral change and to downplay the ‘bad’ or failed campaigns. In a similar vein, Chris brown suggests that the pitfall of the global civil society scholarship is to assume that transnational advocacy networks would provide a panacea for world ills and represent the universal values of the human race.

Then, what factors contribute to the achieve- ment of global civil society, lest we fall for versions of cosmopolitan idealism? Those who turn to history, as well as theory, suggest that the birth of global civil society could occur only in the further development and maturation of civil society. John Keane26 argues that ‘so-called domestic civil societies and the emerg- ing global civil society are normally linked together in complex, cross-border patterns of looped and re-looped circuitry’. The normative divide between domestic and global civil societies is nationalism, a collective sense of unity based on the cultural tra- dition and the recognized existence of a nation in a particular region. However, according to Edward Shills27, civil society is sustained by national collec- tive self-consciousness (Akhand Samaj/One human society), because its normative basis is a collective willingness to accept the legitimacy of the law and authority, which enhances plurality of interests and ideals. Thus, nationalism is also an important vehicle for global civil society.

Philosopher A. Nagraj propounded Madhyas- tha Darshan, which is basically a human centric phi- losophy. At its core is the co-existentialism. Nagraj has elucidated on the harmony and balance in the humane conduct as well as in natural phenomenon. He has proposed some guidelines (human conducts) for humanity that is known as Manviya Samvidhan (human constitution). Keeping the human being as the focus, based on human mental faculties, he has presented a number of sutras that are of very high value for the establishment of a universal human order. These sutras enlighten the path to the solu- tions of present day problems. It guides humanity towards achieving satisfied, prosperous, fearless and co existential life. 28

If we have to identify the role of global civil soci- ety for solving human problem, first of all it is imper- ative to identify and explore the definite human conduct, that is to live Niyam, Niyantran, Santulan with natural order and Nyay, Dharma (order), Satya with human society. The philosophy of Madhyastha Darshan explains the definite and constant conduct of human beings. This conduct could be the founda- tion of a global human citizen code and constitution by which we can explore the universal human order. This is possible through the reorientation ofcontent in education towards behavioral sociology, cyclic eco- nomics, humanization of science and technology, consciousness centered psychology, human centric economic and social system and the human constitu- tion, which could potentially solve problems faced by humans.

REFERENCES:

1. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)

2. Millennium goals – global Problems ~ global Solutions forum, www.laroche.edu/global/goals.htm

3. global footprint http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=global_footprint

4. Washington Post, Tuesday, April 21, 1998, “Mass Extinction Underway, Majority of biologists Say”

5. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)

6. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)

7. Sandeep Pandey, Jeevan vidya, http://www.servintfree.net/~aidmn-ejournal/publications/2001-11/Jeevanvidya.html

8. Karl-Henrik Robèrt, http://www.context.org/IClIb/IC28/Robert.htm

9. Jean-francois Rischard, Twenty global Issues, Twenty years to Solve Them (2002)

10. Alexander Chumakov, Human values: The Key to Solving global Problems (Abstract), The Proceedings of the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy (1998), Alan M. Olson (Editor)

11. Charles H. Southwick, global Ecology In Human Perspective, Oxford University Press, 1996

12. Winfried K. Rudloff, global Issues and Integrative Education, Published in “Adv. In Educ., vol III”, pp. 1-6, Ed. george lasker, IIAS Publication, Windsor, Canada 2000

13. lester brown, Plan b 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble http://www.earth-policy.org/books/Pb2/

14. Thomas Homer-Dixon, ‘On The Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict’. http://www.library.utoronto. ca/pcs/thresh/thresh3.htm#top

15. Thomas Homer-Dixon, ‘On The Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict’. http://www.library.utoronto. ca/pcs/thresh/thresh3.htm#top

16. gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2003. ‘Environmental Conflict: Neomalthusians vs. Cornucopians’, in Hans günter brauch, ed., Security and the Environment in the Mediterranean: Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts. berlin: Springer (477–485).

17. global footprint http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=global_footprint

18. Charles H. Southwick, global Ecology In Human Perspective, Oxford University Press, 1996

19. lester brown, Plan b 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble http://www.earth-policy.org/books/Pb2/

20. Maslow’s basic needs http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html

21. A. Nagraj, vavharvadi Samajshastra, Jeevanvidya Prakshan Amarkantak, (1999)

22. Keck, Margaret and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists beyond borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, Ny, and london: Cornell University Press.

23. Higgott, Richard, geoffrey Underhill, and Andreas bieler. 2000. Non-State Actors and Authority in the global System. london: Routledge.

24. O’brien, Robert, Anne Marie goetz, Jan Aart Scholte, and Marc Williams. 2000. Contesting global governance: Multilateral and global Social Movements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

25. Price, Richard. 2003. ‘Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics.’ World Politics 55 (July):

26. Keane, John. 2001. ‘global Civil Society?’ In global Civil Society 2001, eds. Helmut Anheier, Marlies glasius, and Mary Kaldor. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 23–47.

27. Shils, Edward. 1995. ‘Nation, Nationality, Nationalism and Civil Society.’ Nations and Nationalism 1(1): 93–118. 28. A Nag raj, A.Nagraj, Manviya Samvidhan, Jeevanvidya Prakshan Amarkantak, (2008)

 

 

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India’s low carbon strategies; are they good enough?

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Shankar SharmaShankar Sharma

 

 

Preface
The ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ which was set up under the Planning Commission to develop a strategy for India’s 12th Five Year Plan has released its interim report recently.  While this interim report echoes the earlier govt. stand that India is one of the lowest GHG emitters in world, and hence has a right not to be forced with carbon emission cap, it also clearly recognizes that India is highly vulnerable to climate change, and hence has a strong interest in minimizing the risk of climate change.  It refers to India’s announcement to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25 % over 2005 level by 2020 through pursuit of proactive policies.  This interim report has provided a menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy.

The main sectors examined in this report are power, transport, industry, building and forestry.  It is very relevant to note this report indicates that it is feasible to exceed the target of bringing down the emissions intensity of its GDP by 10 -13 % by 2020 through aggressive efforts.  In view of the huge deleterious impacts to vulnerable section and environment of high GDP growth strategy of the successive governments, and the looming crises associated with the inevitable climate change, the civil society has a special interest in effectively participating in exploring various options available to our society to reduce the total GHG emissions. In this regard an objective review of the menu of options recommended by this expert group to reduce GHG emission intensity becomes essential.

Salient features – towards unsustainable growth rate
A major concern with the approach of this expert group is that it starts with the base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals.  It appears that the social, economic and environmental impacts on the vulnerable sections of our society associated with a sustained GDP growth of 8 – 9 % over the next 20 years were never a matter of concern to this planning group.  Such a high growth rate will mean the manufacture of products and provision of services at an unprecedented pace leading to: setting up of more factories/manufacturing facilities; consumption of large quantities of raw materials; unsustainably increasing demand for natural resources such as water, minerals, timber etc.; acute pressure on the govt. to divert agricultural/forest lands for other purposes; huge demand for energy; clamor for more of airports, air lines, hotels, shopping malls, private vehicles, express highways etc.  Vast increase in each of these activities, while increasing the total GHG emissions, will also reduce the ability of natural carbon sinks such as forests to absorb GHG emissions.

The net effect associated with high GDP growth target will be that the total GHG emissions will increase by considerable margin, even if reduced emissions intensity of country’s GDP is feasible.  The desirability of this scenario to our society needs to be questioned in the context that the increase in total GHG emissions will be closely associated with the increased pollution of air, land and water; and the increased denial of access to natural resources to the vulnerable sections of the society.  Reduced area and density of forests, dammed rivers, polluted air, forced displacements which will all be the consequences of a frenetic 9% GDP growth are bound to impact the vulnerable sections of our society. Since the vulnerable sections of the society are also the most impacted lot due to climate change, the civil society has a crucial role to ensure that their legitimate interests are protected adequately.

A quick look at the possible impact of 9% sustained growth on the critical sectors of the Indian economy can reveal a disturbing trend.  The transport sector will demand much higher consumption of energy such as diesel, petroleum and LNG. These products which already have about 75% import content are projected to reach 85-90% soon with disastrous consequences on energy security.  The pollution loading of vastly increased consumption of petroleum products, which has given rise to concerns in urban areas already, is likely to reach extremely unhealthy levels.  Along with increased GHG emissions and much higher levels of suspended particulate matter, the pressure on the transportation infrastructure can become unmanageable. Increased use of private passenger vehicles, which is already a huge concern, will escalate to choke our roads and lungs.

Industrial activities, as a consequence of 9% sustained growth, will put unbearable demand on land, fresh water, energy and other raw materials.  Such a demand on land (such as in SEZs, coastal industrial corridors, IT&BT parks etc.) have already given rise to a lot of concerns to social scientists, and already has witnessed social upheavals as in Singur, West Bengal.  The industrial sector, which is already responsible for 22% of total GHG emissions, will contribute hugely to the increase in total GHG emissions of the country.  Similarly, 9% GDP growth will lead to steep increase in demand for buildings in the form of factories, transportation infrastructure, offices, hotels,  etc. which in turn will put huge demand for construction materials and energy. In this scenario can the increase in GHG emissions be far behind?

The most telling impact of frenetic economic growth of 9% over 20 years will be on forests, rivers and other natural resources.  As against National Forest Policy target of 33% of forests & tree cover, the country has less than 20% of the same, which are considered to be the most important sinks of GHG emissions. The demand for additional lands and minerals for the increased activities in all the above mentioned sectors will further reduce the forest & tree cover, which in turn will severely impact the availability of fresh water and on the nature’s ability to absorption GHGs.  The impact of vastly reduced forest & tree cover on human health and on all aspects of our society requires no further elaboration. Whereas the increased economic activities associated with 9% growth will certainly result in vastly increased GHG emissions, the same will reduce the ability of forest & tree cover to absorb GHG emissions from the atmosphere. In this scenario it is anybody’s guess as to how the country’s total GHG emissions can be reduced to an acceptable level.

The report seems to mimic the tall claims made under the Green India Mission (GIM). The objective of GIM is to double the area to be taken up for afforestation and eco-restoration in India in the next 10 years at a gigantic investment of about 40,000 Crores. While the frenetic pace of economic development associated with 9% GDP growth rate will lead to considerable reduction in the existing natural forests of high ecological value, GIM may increase the tree over mostly with mono-culture species of much reduced ecological value.  Such a situation will not only increase the GHG emission due to deforestation, but will also drastically reduce the ability of our forests to absorb GHG emissions. This anomaly has not been considered at all in the report.

Of various sectors of our economy energy sector has the highest contribution of emissions with 58% of CO2 equivalent in year 2007, as per this report.  Within the energy sector the largest chunk of emissions was from electricity generation amounting to 65% of CO2 equivalent in that sector.

The report indicates that the compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of emissions trend between 1994 and 2007 for electricity was one of the highest with 5.6% along with cement and waste.  The report says: “Growth in these sectors can be attributed to tremendous increase in capacity of production during 1994 to 2007. Further, the emission intensity as expressed in grams of CO2 -eq per Rs. of GDP has fallen from 66.8 in 1994 to 56.21 in 2007, indicating the impact of government policies that encourage energy efficiency in various sectors of the economy”. In view of the huge CO2 – eq emission contribution of electricity to the total GHG emissions in the country, a cursory look at what the report recommends for this sector becomes important.

As in integrated energy policy (IEP), this Planning Commission report assumes that the country should have 8 – 9% GDP growth, because of which it projects gross electricity generation requirement of about 2,360 Billion kWH in 2020; as compared to 813 Billion kWH in 2007-08 (about 3 times increase). The report also indicates that aggressive efforts in bringing energy efficiency to domestic and commercial appliances can save about 150 Billion kWH by 2020.  Whereas it has assumed that the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets though efficiency improvement and demand side management as 10 Billion kWH, the national level statistics on inefficiency of agricultural pump-sets indicates that the losses are about 10% of the total electrical energy consumption. Hence, if we consider net generation requirement of 2,210 Billion kWH in 2020, the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets can be as high as 50 Billion kWH if can reduce the losses even by 25%, which is technically feasible. Similarly, the report indicates that the savings feasible from efficiency improvement measures in industries as about 60 Billion kWH.

Despite all the suggested measures the GHG emissions within power sector is expected to increase from 598 million tons of CO2 – eq emissions in 2007 to about 1,620 million tons of CO2 equivalents in 2020 for the 9 percent GDP growth scenario; an increase of 2.7 times. Even with all the suggested aggressive efforts in the report the total installed power generating capacity is projected to increase to about 363,000 MW by 2020 as compared to the total capacity of about 160,000 MW in 2007; an increase of about 2.3 times.

Shortcomings of the report
The report assumes coal power to be the least cost option, and that the coal power capacity needs to be increased to 230, 000 MW from the present level of about 80,000 MW.  It states: “… This will require an annual coal supply of at least 1,000 million tons, two and a half times the present. Domestic mining will have to increase considerably otherwise imports will have to meet a large fraction of coal demand.” To increase the domestic mining large tracts of thick forests have to be destroyed.  The report while eulogizing how much GHG emission saving can be achieved by steps mentioned in the report, it completely ignores how much GHG absorption potential will be lost by destroying forests.

The projected increase in the installed power generation capacity poses almost insurmountable logistical problems. “… In other words, it translates to adding about 20,000 MW of new generation capacity per annum. As against this, in the recent years, India has added only about 10,000 MW per annum…”.  But this issue has not been dealt effectively, and how the gap can be bridged. The embedded GHG emissions in increasing the installed power capacity by about 150,000 MW are not even mentioned.

As in the integrated energy policy, the importance given to renewable energy sources is woefully inadequate. The report states: “Solar installed capacity if pursued with seriousness could grow to 20,000 MW by 2020. It is one of the critical technology options for India’s long term energy security. Several parts of India are endowed with good solar radiation and deploying solar even on 1 percent of the land area could result in over 500,000 MW of solar power.”  With adequate encouragement given to feed-in-tariff mechanism for roof top mounted solar PV systems, for which there has been strong advocacy for a number of years, many times more than the 20,000 MW solar capacity can be realized; but sadly the required level of commitment is lacking.

As in the integrated energy policy, this report too has failed to put adequate emphasis on DSM measures, which with effective strategies can bring down the power capacity projection to a level much below 363,000 MW by 2020. Report says : “It is clear that in the absence of implementing DSM measures, India will continue to face power shortage in 2020, which itself could place an energy constraint on growth.”

A major problem for the Indian economy, as well as its environment, will be the unchecked growth of urban areas. The report states: “..The urban populations are predicted to rise to 550 million by 2030 or 42.0 percent of the total population….. This urban growth, combined with rapid growth in the economy, has resulted in putting enormous pressure on housing requirements, urban infrastructure and other services.”  No measures have been contemplated to limit the growth of urban areas.

Way forward to ensure sustainable development of our masses:

  1. The base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals will lead to very many intractable problems for the society from social and environmental perspectives. Such a high growth rate has not been found necessary even in developed economies, where even at the highest growth period they are reported to have registered only 4-6 % growth.  The so called “trickle down” benefits to vulnerable sections of our society through 8-9 % growth will be negligible as compared to the all round benefits associated with inclusive growth of a much reduced rate, say 4-6%, if we effectively harness our natural resources responsibly. Hence the obsession with target GDP growth rate of 8-9 % should be replaced by a paradigm shift in our developmental objective, which will give priority for inclusive growth aimed at sustainable and responsible use of natural resources.
  2. We should dispense with the practice of projecting the total energy production capacity required to sustain 8-9 % GDP growth through the year 2020 0r 2030, and then aiming to attain that production capacity largely through conventional energy sources. Instead we should focus objectively in determining the lowest amount of energy required to wipe out the poverty, and how to meet that energy requirement at lowest overall cost to the society without compromising on the environmental well being on a sustainable basis.
  3. The line of argument that the country has a right to emit more GHGs because its per capita emissions is one of the lowest may be suitable for the purpose of international negotiations, but it must be drastically modified to take into account the fact that it is the total GHG emissions which is relevant in the context of Climate Change, and not the per capita emissions.  We cannot ignore the fact that the huge increase in total GHG emissions, which is inevitable with 8-9 % growth, will lead to heavy pollution of land, air and water, and will adversely impact the legitimate interests of various sections of our society while also leading to the exploitation of our natural resources in an unsustainable fashion.
  4. We must appreciate that there is a limit to the nature’s ability to support the provision of products and services required by the increasing human population. Such a demand on the nature must be carefully managed, which is not possible if we set a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for such a huge population, which is growing every year.
  5. In the global context of Climate Change, what is needed is the honest effort by every nation to reduce the total GHG emissions, and not exercising the individual right to increase emissions. While a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for India will lead to such a blunder, it is eminently possible to ensure steady development of all sections of our society by taking honest measures to reduce GHG emissions. Highest levels of energy efficiency, optimal demand side management, widespread usage of new & renewable energy sources, and responsible use of our natural resources are essential in this regard.

In this regard the menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy as recommended by ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ clearly falls short of the requirement, and hence much more proactive strategies to reduce the overall GHG emissions are needed.

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The Radiant Raindrops of Rajasthan

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Anupam MishraAnupam Mishra

Environmentalist
Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi
 

Covered with sweat, the chelvanji is at work inside the kuin (well). Already about a depth of thirty to thirty five hands (cubits) have been dug. Now onwards the heat inside will go on increasing. The width of the kuin and its circumference are extremely narrow. Just the distance of a hand separates the back and the chest of the squatting chelvanji from the earth. In such a narrow space one cannot dig with a kulhari (axe) or a phawara (shovel); it is with the help of a basauli that the digging is done. The basauli is a tool which looks like a small phawara with a small handle; the pointed blade is in iron and the handle in wood.

The already hard work being carried out inside the well gets affected by the ambient heat. To lessen the heat, those who are on top, on the earth’s surface, vigorously throw fistfuls of sand from time to time into the pit. Thanks to this, the fresh air of the top is thrust down and the hot, stifling air accumulated down is forced up. The sand grains being thrown from such a height could well hit the head of the chelvanji at work; therefore, to protect his head, the latter wears a headgear made of brass or some other metal as a helmet. Inside, after a little digging, malba collects around the feet of the chelvanji. A little tub (dol) or bucket (balti) is lowered to him with the help of the rope.

The mud is collected into it. When this is brought up, inspite of all the precautions taken, there is still the possibility of some pebbles falling out. The helmet will then protect the chelvanji from these also.

Chelvanjis or chejaros are people who are expert at digging wells and also at doing a very special chinai (covering) of their inner walls. This work is called cheja. The kuin at which the chejaro is working is no ordinary construction. A kuin is in fact a very small kuan (well), kuin is feminine and kuan, masculine. The kuin is actually small only in width, as far as its depth goes, it is quite deep. In Rajasthan, the depth of kuins can vary for specific reasons from place to place.

The kuin differs from the kuan in yet another way. The kuan is dug to tap the water table but the kuin does not access the water table in the same way as the kuan does. The kuin collects rain water in a very special way that too even when there is no rainfall. In other words the water of the kuin comes neither from the surface water which trickles down nor from the water table. It is a complicated affair which can best be described as the upanishadic neti,..neti (not this, not this).
In the desert the extent and the depth of sand are infinite. Here even if there has been heavy rainfall, it does not take long for the water to be absorbed in the ground. But from place to place, beneath the surface of the sand, at a depth ranging from 10 to 15 to 50 to 60 hands, there can be a layer of gypsum. Wherever it is present, this layer is quite long and large; however, since it is covered by sand it is not visible from the top.

In such places it is through the changes detected in the soil that one can discover the layer of gypsum while digging for a kuan. In the case of kuans, water can always be reached at a depth of 150-200 hands but then this water is very often salty. Therefore, it is unfit for drinking. This is why, in such regions, kuins are built. To detect the layer, the experience of generations also comes in handy. Should even a little rain water stagnate in such places, then it is the indication that a layer of gypsum is present there.

This layer stops the water from percolating till the salty water table. In such cases, the rainwater which falls gets trapped between the sandy surface and the gypsum layer beneath it; it then spreads as a humid patch. During periods of intense heat, it is possible for this humidity to evaporate. But in such regions, Nature offers yet another unique kindness. The particles of sand are very fine; they do not stick to each other like the particles of earth do. Where there is attachment (lagav) there is also detachment (algav) . The particles of earth that stick to each other can also be dislodged: that is why some places are bereft. In regions where there is a predominance of black or mixed domat earth such as in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and others, as soon as rain stops and the sun shines, the earth particles stick to each other and thus there are cracks in the soil, the fields and the yards. Then, the humidity collected in the soil escapes from these cracks as vapour to go back to the atmosphere, the moment the heat starts.

Yet here, union comes from disintegration. Normally in the desert, the sand particles remain dispersed. Since there is no mutual attraction, therefore there is no separation. When rain falls, the particles become a little heavy but still they do not get dislodged. That is why there are no cracks on the surface of the desert. The rainwater that gets collected inside remains there. On one side it is protected by the layer of gypsum, which runs underneath, and on the other side, the innumerable particles of sand stand on rigorous watch on the surface.

Every single drop which falls in this region penetrates the sand and is transformed into humidity. Thus when a kuin is made, its belly, its empty cavity transforms the humidity present in the sand surrounding it into drops once more. Each drop seeps in to fill up the kuin with water – water as sweet as ambrosia in an ocean of salty water.

To access this ambrosia the people of the desert like the Gods during the samudra manthan have not spared any effort. They elaborated a whole science to translate their experience into practicality. This science classifies the available water into three forms. The first form is palar pant, which is water that is directly obtained from the rains. This water falls on the surface of the earth and is contained in rivers, lakes adi (etc). The word adi itself is pregnant with meanings, which will be revealed later on.
The second form is called patal pani, or one can say ‘hadean water’, (i.e., actually subterranean water). This refers to the water table, which is accessible from wells.

Between the palar and patal forms we have the third form of water which is rejani pani. This water percolates through the earth surface but does not reach the water table.

To measure the rainfall the terms inches or centimetres are not used; instead it is the word reja which is used. And reja does not measure the precipitation which falls on the surface; it measures the amount of water stored within the earth’s surface. If there has been a rainfall in the desert, which allows five fingers of water to infiltrate into the earth, then it is said that five fingers reja rain has fallen.

Thanks to the gypsum layer, the rejani water does not mix with the patali water. In the absence of such a layer, the rejani water slowly percolates to the water table and thus loses its specific properties. For if at places the water table is salty then on reaching it, the rejani water too will become salty.

It is indeed a special art to construct a kuin which will be able to collect this special rejani water. The chejaro who takes down a kuin having a circumference of 4 to 5 hands to a depth of 30 to 60-65 hands amply measures the skill and caution required.

Chejo, which is the art of covering with (chinai), is die very life of the kuin. The smallest error while doing this work can cost the life of the chejaro. Every day, a little bit of digging is done, the debris are removed with the help of a dol (tub), then any further digging in stopped and the covering of the surface of the work done so far is done so that there is no caving in.

As the cejaro goes deeper at a depth of 20-25 hands, it starts getting hotter and hotter and the air starts getting rarer and rarer. Then fistfuls of sand are thrown from the top. The gust of air which displaces the huge sand dunes of the desert then wafts from the small fistful of sand to reach the sweating chelvanji down below and give him some respite. At places this already difficult work of making a kuin gets further complicated. At such places it is not possible to stop the earth from sliding by lining it with stones; in such cases the kuin has to be ‘tied’ with ropes.

The first day, at the same time as the kuin is dug, a huge pile of grass named khimp is collected. “While the chejaro starts the digging, the rest of the people start weaving a rope which is three fingers thick with the khimp. At the end of the first day’s work, the kuin reaches a depth of about ten hands. The first circle of rope is then installed by setting the rope against the wall; on top of the first circle, comes the second one and on top of the second, the third circle, then the fourth and so on and so forth. The thick and coarse khimp rope presses with all its weight at each round and each round of rope gets interlocked with the other as they are rolled on top of each other. The extremity of the rope reaches the ground level.

The next day more digging (the length of a few hands) takes place; a few more hands of earth is dug out and the kundali (coils) of rope which was fixed the previous day is then shifted to the newly dug area. The upper part of the free wall is then covered with new rope. To maintain the coils of rope on the wall, in between they are covered with chinai (masonry work).
For a 5 hands large kuin, 15 hands of rope is required to make just one coil of the kundali. For a depth of one hand, 8-10 coils of rope are required and this itself measures up to 150 hands. Therefore, if a 30 hands deep kuin has to be lined then one requires a rope of around 4,000 hands. People who are watching and are not familiar with the process will wonder what is going on: the digging of the kuin or the making of rope?

At some places neither too much gypsum nor too much khimp is found. Yet if rejani water is present kuins are definitely dug. At such places the wall of the kuins arc lined with long slabs of wood, made from the branches of ami, ban, bawal, or kimbat. The ami is best suited for this work. However, even if the best or second best wood is not available, one can always use ak.

The slabs are made to stand, bottom to top, interlocked with each other. They are then tied together with the khimp rope. At places even the chag rope is used. This tying up too has the shape of a kundali and is therefore sometimes called sampni the serpentine.

The chelvanji, who is busy digging and lining the kuin, knows the properties of the soil very well. The moment he touches the layer of gypsum, the work is stopped. At that moment the water starts oozing, and the chejaro comes up.

The successful completion of the kuin, i.e., when water is reached, becomes the occasion of a celebration. In any case, normally from the very first day good care is taken of the workers, as per the traditions of this place; but on the completion of the work there is a celebration and a special feast is organised. At the moment of departure, the chelvanji receives several types of gifts. Jt is not as if from that day the relationship between the chejaro and the village is over. According to tradition, throughout the year, during auspicious occasions and festivities, during weddings, he receives the gifts customarily given to members of the family and close friends. During harvest, in the khadiyan, a special pile of cereal is kept for him. Nowadays the tradition of just giving a salary for the work done has been adopted.

There are many places where instead of the chejaro, ordinary householders themselves become masters of the art. In several villages of Jaisalmer, the kuins made by Paliwal Brahmins and meghwalas (counted as a scheduled caste today) two hundred years ago are still tirelessly providing water.

There are three major reasons for keeping the mouth of the kuin narrow. The drops of water coming from the humidity trapped in the sand seep in very slowly. Throughout the day the amount of water that gets collected in the kuin is barely enough to fill two to three pots. The amount of water lying at the bottom of the kuin is so little that were the opening to be large, the small amount of water would spread and then it would be impossible to bring it up. In the narrow kuin, the water, which slowly oozes in, attains a height of 2-4 hands. At some places, for this very reason, instead of using a small bucket for pulling the water up, a small charas (water skin) is used. A metal bucket does not get immersed. But the water skin made of coarse cloth or leather has a heavy iron ring around its neck. When the charas hits the water, the heavy top part falls on the lower part and thus, the charas gets properly immersed even in the small amount of water. Once it gets filled, when it is brought up, the charas takes its full shape.

Of late, roads have been built around some villages and trucks go by them. In such villages we find that small charsis have been fashioned out of torn tyre tubes.

Another reason determining the circumference of the kuin is the scorching heat that prevails in these regions. If the circumference is big then the water within the kuin will spread and the big circumference will not be able to stop the water from evaporating.

To keep the kuin and its water clean it is necessary to cover it and it is easier to cover a narrow opening. Generally all the kuins are covered with a wooden cover; however, at places one may also find covers made of small twigs or grass like vetiver. Where new roads have been built, leading to the increased coming and going of unfamiliar and new people, there the water, which is as sweet as ambrosia, needs to be protected. At such places, often, small locks have been put on the cover of the kuins. Locks are also put on the pulley (ghirni) or the wheel (chakri) fixed to the kuin for pulling water.

If the kuin is deep then a ghirni or a chakri is fixed to it to facilitate the pulling out of water. This device is also known as gaderi., charkhi, or pharedi. The pharedi could also be fixed on two iron arms. However, generally, it is fixed on a rounded, strong trunk, after a hole has been bored through it. This is called audak. Without the audak and charkhi it would become very difficult to draw water from such a deep and narrow well. The audak and the charkhi enable the charsi to come up without hitting against the wall of the well and without spilling water. It is also helpful to pull the heavy weight.

A gypsum layer usually runs for a long distance and that is why all along this length kuins are constructed. In fact, at places, one can find 30-40 kuins in a big and clean field. To each house its kuin^ and if the family is large then there is more than one.

The sacrosanct line, which divides private property from common property, gets strangely erased when it comes to kuins. To each their own kuin; everyone has the right to construct a kuin and use its water. However, the kuin is constructed on land which is the collective property of the village. The rain which falls there remains throughout the year in the form of humidity and it is this humidity which feeds the kuins throughout the year. The amount of humidity present is determined by the amount of rainfall. Constructing a kuin in that area means sharing the humidity present there and that is why, though the kuin is a private property, since it is constructed on collective property, it falls under the control of the village society. It is only in case of dire necessity that permission is granted to build a new kuin.

Each day the kuin reinforces the meaning of the well-known proverb about the goose with the golden egg: throughout the day only 2 to 3 pots of sweet water can be drawn from the kuin. That is why, every day, at dusk, when the cows come back home raising dust, the village assembles around the kuins and it looks as if a mela (fair) is on. In the plain adjoining the village, the sound of the pulleys of the 30 to 40 kuins, turning at the same time mingles with that of the bells of the cattle returning from the grazing grounds. After 2 to 3 pots are filled up the bucket and ropes are kept back, the kuins are covered again. Throughout the night and throughout the next day the kuins will rest.

It is not as if gypsum layers are present under the sand throughout Rajasthan; that is why kuins are not to be found everywhere. However a gypsum layer does run through Churu, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Badmer: that is why, in these districts, kuins are to be found in each village. In fact, in the district of Jaisalmer, in the village named Khadedo Ki Dhani there were 120 kuins. People used to call this village cha-bisi (six times twenty). At places the kuins are called par and several villages of Jaisalmer and Badmer owe their existence to these pars which explains why several villages have the suffix par attached to their name: Janare Alo Par, Sirgu Ah Par.

The name of the gypsum layer can change from place to place. Somewhere it is called charoli and somewhere else dhandbro or dhardharo. Somewhere it is bittoo ro balliyo and elsewhere it is just khadi.

And it is on the strength of this khadi that in the midst of a salty water region, the kuin gives sweet water.

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Anupam Mishra

Anupam Mishra travels across India studying rainwater harvesting methods and learning from the local people behind them. He presents his findings to NGos, development agencies and environmental groups, pulling from centuries of indigenous wisdom that has found water for drinking and irrigation even in extremely arid landscapes through wells, filter ponds and other catchment systems. Anupam Mishra has been working to bridge the gap between modern water manage- ment technology and india’s heritage of water harvesting, so that every community is self-sustainable and efficiently safekeeping an increasingly scarce and precious resource. Anupam Mishra has served Gandhi peace foundation, New delhi as the secretary.