anthropologist at the London School of Economics and author of The Divide: A New History of Global Inequality. He received his PhD in Anthropology from the University of Virginia in 2011.
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[themify_quote]As the UN’s new sustainable development goals are launched in New York, there’s little to celebrate about the business-as-usual approach[/themify_quote]
Recent research found 70% of people in middle- and high-income countries believe overconsumption is putting our planet and society at risk. Photograph: Seth Wenig/Reuters
This week, heads of state are gathering in New York to sign the UN’s new sustainable development goals (SDGs). The main objective is to eradicate poverty by 2030. Beyoncé, One Direction and Malala are on board. It’s set to be a monumental international celebration.
Given all the fanfare, one might think the SDGs are about to offer a fresh plan for how to save the world, but beneath all the hype, it’s business as usual. The main strategy for eradicating poverty is the same: growth.
Growth has been the main object of development for the past 70 years, despite the fact that it’s not working. Since 1980, the global economy has grown by 380%, but the number of people living in poverty on less than $5 (£3.20) a day has increased by more than 1.1 billion. That’s 17 times the population of Britain. So much for the trickle-down effect.
Orthodox economists insist that all we need is yet more growth. More progressive types tell us that we need to shift some of the yields of growth from the richer segments of the population to the poorer ones, evening things out a bit. Neither approach is adequate. Why? Because even at current levels of average global consumption, we’re overshooting our planet’s bio-capacity by more than 50% each year.
In other words, growth isn’t an option any more – we’ve already grown too much. Scientists are now telling us that we’re blowing past planetary boundaries at breakneck speed. And the hard truth is that this global crisis is due almost entirely to overconsumption in rich countries.
Right now, our planet only has enough resources for each of us to consume 1.8 “global hectares” annually – a standardised unit that measures resource use and waste. This figure is roughly what the average person in Ghana or Guatemala consumes. By contrast, people in the US and Canada consume about 8 hectares per person, while Europeans consume 4.7 hectares – many times their fair share.
What does this mean for our theory of development? Economist Peter Edward argues that instead of pushing poorer countries to “catch up” with rich ones, we should be thinking of ways to get rich countries to “catch down” to more appropriate levels of development. We should look at societies where people live long and happy lives at relatively low levels of income and consumption not as basket cases that need to be developed towards western models, but as exemplars of efficient living.
How much do we really need to live long and happy lives? In the US, life expectancy is 79 years and GDP per capita is $53,000. But many countries have achieved similar life expectancy with a mere fraction of this income. Cuba has a comparable life expectancy to the US and one of the highest literacy rates in the world with GDP per capita of only $6,000 and consumption of only 1.9 hectares – right at the threshold of ecological sustainability. Similar claims can be made of Peru, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Tunisia.
Yes, some of the excess income and consumption we see in the rich world yields improvements in quality of life that are not captured by life expectancy, or even literacy rates. But even if we look at measures of overall happiness and wellbeing in addition to life expectancy, a number of low- and middle-income countries rank highly. Costa Rica manages to sustain one of the highest happiness indicators and life expectancies in the world with a per capita income one-fourth that of the US.
In light of this, perhaps we should regard such countries not as underdeveloped, but rather as appropriately developed. And maybe we need to start calling on rich countries to justify their excesses.
[pullquote]70% of people in middle- and high-income countries believe overconsumption is putting our planet and society at risk[/pullquote]The idea of “de-developing” rich countries might prove to be a strong rallying cry in the global south, but it will be tricky to sell to westerners. Tricky, but not impossible. According to recent consumer research, 70% of people in middle- and high-income countries believe overconsumption is putting our planet and society at risk. A similar majority also believe we should strive to buy and own less, and that doing so would not compromise our happiness. People sense there is something wrong with the dominant model of economic progress and they are hungry for an alternative narrative.
The problem is that the pundits promoting this kind of transition are using the wrong language. They use terms such as de-growth, zero growth or – worst of all – de-development, which are technically accurate but off-putting for anyone who’s not already on board. Such terms are repulsive because they run against the deepest frames we use to think about human progress, and, indeed, the purpose of life itself. It’s like asking people to stop moving positively thorough life, to stop learning, improving, growing.
Negative formulations won’t get us anywhere. The idea of “steady-state” economics is a step in the right direction and is growing in popularity, but it still doesn’t get the framing right. We need to reorient ourselves toward a positive future, a truer form of progress. One that is geared toward quality instead of quantity. One that is more sophisticated than just accumulating ever increasing amounts of stuff, which doesn’t make anyone happier anyway. What is certain is that GDP as a measure is not going to get us there and we need to get rid of it.
Perhaps we might take a cue from Latin Americans, who are organising alternative visions around the indigenous concept of buen vivir, or good living. The west has its own tradition of reflection on the good lifeand it’s time we revive it. Robert and Edward Skidelsky take us down this road in his book How Much is Enough?where they lay out the possibility of interventions such as banning advertising, a shorter working week and a basic income, all of which would improve our lives while reducing consumption.
Either we slow down voluntarily or climate change will do it for us. We can’t go on ignoring the laws of nature. But rethinking our theory of progress is not only an ecological imperative, it is also a development one. If we do not act soon, all our hard-won gains against poverty will evaporate, as food systems collapse and mass famine re-emerges to an extent not seen since the 19th century.
This is not about giving anything up. And it’s certainly not about living a life of voluntary misery or imposing harsh limits on human potential. On the contrary, it’s about reaching a higher level of understanding and consciousness about what we’re doing here and why.
The Union Budget, which is a yearly affair, is a comprehensive display of the Government’s revenues and expenditures. It makes an estimate of the revenues from all sources for the next fiscal year, and outlines the expenditures that the government proposes to make in the next fiscal year under various heads.
Therefore, an analysis of the Union Budget reveals the basic orientation of the government, what are its priorities, whether it is pro-corporate or pro-poor.
Most media intellectuals who commented on Budget 2015–16 praised the budget, saying that it was “reformist and growth-oriented”, “pragmatic”, “balanced”, “reflects clear intent to put the economy on the path of double digit growth”, contains “path-breaking proposals” and so on.
Let us analyse more closely to see what it really contains.
The Fiscal Deficit Reduction Gospel
Soon after taking over the reins of the Finance Ministry in May last year, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley declared that the immediate focus of the government would be on curbing the fiscal deficit. His predecessor, P. Chidambaram, had brought down the fiscal deficit from 4.8 percent in 2012–13 to 4.5 percent in 2013–14; and then set a target for further reducing it to 4.1 percent for the year 2014–15 in his interim budget presented just before the 2014 Lok Sabha elections. Jaitley, in his first budget speech in July 2014, vowed to adhere to this “daunting” fiscal deficit target.1
While presenting the first full budget of the new government on February 28, 2015, the Finance Minister proudly announced that the government had succeeded in sticking to the fiscal deficit target of 4.1 percent of the GDP for the year 2014–15. He further declared that in the financial year 2015–16, the fiscal deficit would be brought down to 3.9 percent, and then further to 3.6 percent and finally to 3 percent in 2016–17 and 2017–18, respectively.2
That India must bring down its fiscal deficit to near zero if it wants to become an economic superpower in the near future has become an economic gospel today. All the leading establishment economists, each and every economist associated with international financial institutions, every renowned management guru—all are in agreement that high levels of fiscal deficit relative to GDP adversely affect growth. For the last more than two decades, ever since India began globalisation in 1991, controlling the fiscal deficit has been a key aspect of budget making of the government of India. In seeking to bring down the fiscal deficit to below 4 percent of the GDP and further to 3 percent of the GDP by 2017–18, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley is only walking down the path set by his predecessors in the Finance Ministry.3
Box 1: Understanding the Budget Terms*
i) Union Budget = Total Receipts = Total Expenditures
Union Budget for 2015–16 = Rs 1,777,477 crore
ii) Gross Tax Revenues
Gross Tax Revenues include direct taxes (income tax, corporation tax, etc.) and indirect taxes (customs duties, excise duties, sales tax, etc.).
Total Gross Tax Revenues, 2015–16 = Rs 1,449,500 crore
Of the total gross tax revenues of the government, a portion is transferred to the states. The remaining is what shows in the Union Budget (Centre’s Net Tax Revenue).
Gross Tax Revenues = Tax Revenue (Net to Centre) + States’ share of Central Tax Revenues + Transfer to National Calamity Fund
Centre’s Net Tax Revenue = Rs 919,842 crore
States’ share of Central Tax Revenues = Rs 523,958 crore
iii) Total Receipts (in Union Budget) = Total Revenue Receipts + Total Capital Receipts
Non-tax revenues include profits of public sector enterprises, interest receipts on loans given by the government (to public sector enterprises, state governments, etc.), and income such as sale of spectrum.
Capital Receipts = Non-debt Capital Receipts + Debt Receipts
Non-debt Capital receipts include disinvestment income and return of loans.
Debt receipts are government borrowings. The government borrows when its total receipts (revenue receipts + non-debt capital receipts) exceed its expenditures. The borrowings are also called the fiscal deficit.
iv) Total Expenditure (in Union Budget):
Two different sets of classifications are used.
Revenue vs Capital Expenditure
Capital Expenditure: Expenditure used to create assets or to reduce liabilities, e.g. building a road, or paying back a loan.
Revenue Expenditure: Expenditure not used to create assets, e.g. expenses on salaries or other administrative costs.
Plan vs Non-plan Expenditure
Plan Expenditure: Expenditure on schemes and projects covered by the five-year Plans. Such plans are developed by the Planning Commission after consulting individual ministries. Plan expenditure can have both revenue and capital components. For instance, under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, salaries of teachers could be classified as revenue expenditure, while expenditure on the building a school might be classified as capital expenditure.
Plan Expenditure can also be classified as:
Plan Expenditure = Total Budget Support for Central Plan + Central Assistance for State and UT Plans
Non-plan Expenditure: Ongoing expenditure by the government not covered by the Plans. These include interest payments on government debt, expenditure on organs of the state such as the judiciary and the police and even expenditure on the maintenance of existing government establishments such as schools and hospitals. Non-plan expenditure too, has revenue and capital components.
Union Budget for 2015–16
Plan Expenditure, 2015-16 = Rs 465,277 crore
Total Budget Support for Central Plan = Rs 260,493 crore
Central Assistance for State and UT Plans = Rs 204,784 crore
v) Central Plan Outlay: This is essentially this year’s instalment of the Five-Year Plan. The funding for this is raised through:
Central Plan Outlay = Total Budget Support for Central Plan + Internal and Extra Budgetary Resources (IEBR) of Public Enterprises
IEBR = Rs 317,889 crore
Central Plan Outlay (2015-16) = Rs 578,382 crore
* Source for all figures: Union Budget Documents, 2015-16
Before we go ahead, we briefly explain what is meant by the term fiscal deficit.
Fiscal Deficit
Fiscal deficit is just another term for government borrowings of various types. The government borrows when its expenditures exceed its receipts of all types.
Fiscal Deficit = Government expenditures – Receipts
Receipts = Tax Revenues (Net to Centre) + Non-tax Revenues + Non-debt Capital Receipts
Receipts include tax revenues, non-tax revenues and non-debt capital receipts. Tax revenues include direct taxes (income tax, corporation tax, etc.) and indirect taxes (customs duties, excise duties, sales tax, etc.)—this, minus the states’ share in these tax revenues, is what is included here. Non-tax revenues include profits of public sector enterprises, interest receipts on loans given by the government (to public sector enterprises, state governments, etc.), and income such as sale of spectrum. Non-debt capital receipts include disinvestment income and return of loans.
Humbug of Finance
The fact is, the economic theory that the government must balance its expenditure with its income, that is, must bring down its fiscal deficit to near zero, is plain humbug. John Maynard Keynes, considered by many to be the greatest economist of the twentieth century, had demonstrated long back that in an economy like India, where there is so much poverty and unemployment, the government should enlarge the fiscal deficit and increase its spending, it is beneficial for the economy.4 Even the governments of the developed countries like United States and Japan, when faced with recessionary conditions, have resorted to huge levels of public spending and high fiscal deficits.
Then why is the government of India so keen to reduce its fiscal deficit? Because it gives it an excuse to reduce its expenditures on the poor and transfer the savings to big corporate houses!
In other words, and this may sound amazing to many of our readers, none of our Finance Ministers, from Arun Jaitley to P. Chidambaram, have been / are really keen about reducing the fiscal deficit. This is obvious from the way they have been handling the various components of the fiscal deficit. The fiscal deficit is the excess of the government’s expenditures over receipts. Even a cursory look at the policies being pursued by the government of India reveals that it is giving away lakhs of crores of rupees as subsidies to the rich. Had it really been concerned about the fiscal deficit, it could have easily reduced these mind-boggling give-aways. But these concessions are dubbed as ‘incentives’ and are justified in the name of promoting growth / development / entrepreneurism. On the other hand, the concessions given to the poor, which are aimed at making available essential welfare services like education, health, food, transport, electricity, etc. to them at affordable rates, are given the derisive name ‘subsidies’ and are being drastically reduced in the name of containing the fiscal deficit. Not only that, these essential services are also being privatised—resulting in fabulous profits for the private sector.
A closer look at Modi government’s 2014–15 budget figures will make our point clear.
Budget 2014–15: Tax Concessions to the Rich.5
Every year, for the past several years, the budget documents have included a statement on the estimated revenue forgone by the government due to exemptions in major taxes levied by the Centre. The 2015–16 budget documents reveal that for the year 2014–15, the government gave away Rs 5.49 lakh crore in tax exemptions/ deductions/ incentives to the very rich. (The write-offs as mentioned in the budget are actually Rs 5.89 lakh crore. From that, we have deducted the Rs 40,434 crore forgone on personal income tax, since this write-off benefits a wider group of people.)6 These major write-offs are in direct corporate income tax, customs duties and excise duties.
Box 2: Budget – Some More Definitions
Direct Taxes: Taxes directly imposed on the customers such as Income Tax and Corporate Tax.
Custom Duties: Levies on goods imported to or exported from the country.
Excise Duties: Duties imposed on goods manufactured within the country.
Gross Domestic Product: Total market value of the goods and services manufactured within the country in a financial year.
To put this amount in perspective, these tax concessions to the country’s rich constitute nearly one-third the size of the Union Budget. They actually exceed our fiscal deficit for 2014–15 (Rs 5.13 lakh crore) (Table 1)! Had Jaitley really been concerned about reducing the fiscal deficit, he could have reduced these concessions given to India’s richie rich.
Table 1: Comparison of Tax Concessions to Rich in
2014–15 with Other Budget Figures
Tax Concessions to Rich, 2014–15
Rs 5.49 lakh crore
Fiscal Deficit, 2014–15 RE
Rs 5.13 lakh crore
Size of Union Budget, 2014–15 RE
Rs 16.81 lakh crore
Tax Concessions to Rich, 2014–15, as % of Union Budget, 2014–15 RE
32.7%
Gross Tax Revenues, 2014–15 RE
Rs 12.51 lakh crore
Tax Concessions to Rich, 2014–15, as % of Gross Tax Revenues, 2014–15 RE
43.9%
These tax concessions are being given to some of the richest people in the world. Forbes, the oracle of business journalism, puts out a list of the world’s billionaires every year. Its 2014 list included the names of 56 Indians, with a collective net worth of $191.5 billion.7 That is equivalent to Rs 11.8 lakh crore, more than double our fiscal deficit for 2014–15. (Calculated assuming $1 = Rs 62)
Box 3: Budget Estimate, Revised Estimate and Actual
The Budget Estimate for any ministry or scheme is the amount allocated to it in the budget papers for the following year. For instance, in the budget speech of February 2015, the finance minister presented ‘budget estimates’ for the 2015-16 financial year which runs from April 2015 to March 2016. Once the financial year gets underway, some ministries may need more funds than was actually allocated to them under the ‘budget estimates’. The government approaches parliament with such ‘supplementary’ requests for funds during the course of the financial year. These supplementary demands are reflected in the Revised Estimates for the current year. Thus along with budget estimates for 2015-16, the finance minister also presented the revised estimates for 2014-15. Actual expenditures are the final amounts spent under different heads and may exceed (or fall short of) the Revised Estimates. Since the actual expenditure can only be assessed once the financial year is over and final accounts have been prepared, the Actual expenditures presented in the budget papers are for the earlier financial year, i.e. for the year 2013-14.
The obscenity of these tax concessions becomes evident from just a single statistic: in 2014–15, the single biggest chunk of customs duties forgone was on diamonds and gold, accounting for Rs 75,592 crore.8
It is because of these huge tax concessions to the rich that the government’s gross tax revenues for the year 2014–15 have fallen short of the target. Jaitley had set a target of collecting gross tax revenues to the tune of 10.6 percent of the GDP for the year 2014–15. The revised estimates for 2014–15 show that there has been a shortfall in tax revenues to the tune of Rs 1.13 lakh crore, and hence the gross tax revenues as a percentage of the GDP has been revised downward to 9.9 percent of the GDP.9
Despite this fall in gross tax revenues, how has the government succeeded in achieving the fiscal deficit target of 4.1 percent of the GDP?
Table 2: Union Budget, 2014–15 and 2015–16:
Reduction in Expenditures on Vulnerable Sections.10 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2014–15 RE
Reduction:
BE – RE
(%)
2015–16 BE
Reduction:
{2014–15 BE}– {2015–16 BE} (%)
Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan
50,548
33,638
33
30,851
39
Tribal Sub-Plan
32,387
20,536
37
19,980
38
Schemes for Welfare of Children
81,075
69,888
14
57,919
29
Gender Budget
98,030
81,984
16
79,258
19
It has succeeded in this mainly due to huge cuts in government expenditure. For 2014–15, the total government expenditure was budgeted at Rs 1,794,892 crore. However, the revised estimates show that there was a decline in both Plan and Non-Plan expenditure, and hence the revised budget expenditure was less than the budgeted estimate by Rs 113,734 crore (Table 3).11
Where were these cuts made? In Central Government spending on social sectors. The revised estimates for 2014–15 show that the government slashed its budgetary spending on schemes for the most vulnerable and marginalised sections of the Indian society by as much as 14 to 37 percent, to meet its fiscal deficit target! (Table 2, fourth column; the various heads are explained later in this essay.)
Analysing Budget 2015–16
Yet More Tax Concessions to the Rich
In the run-up to the budget, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley repeatedly asserted that the economy is constrained by “fiscal deficit in revenue.”12 But as we have seen above, this has not prevented him from giving lakhs of crores of rupees of tax concessions and other sops to corporate houses.
Box 4: Tax-to-GDP Ratio
This ratio helps to understand how much tax revenue is being collected by the government as compared to the overall size of the economy.
Government Revenues, % of GDP, 2007–1113
It is because of these huge tax giveaways to India’s richie rich that India’s combined tax-to-GDP ratio for Centre and states put together is among the lowest in the world. India’s tax–GDP ratio, at around 18 percent of the GDP, is far below not only the ‘advanced economies’ (36.7 percent), but also the ‘emerging market and developing economies’ (27.9 percent). Even the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, considered to be one of the poorest regions in the world, have a tax–GDP ratio of 27 percent (Chart 1).
It is thus obvious that there is a huge scope for increasing tax revenues in the country. However, instead of taking steps to increase its tax revenues, the government has been giving yet more tax concessions to big business, and consequently the tax-to-GDP ratio of centre and states combined fell to 17.9 percent for 2013–14 (BE).14
For 2014–15, the Central Government had projected the tax-to-GDP ratio for Gross Central Tax Revenues at 10.6 percent (itself a huge fall from the peak of 11.71 percent reached in 2007–08). However, due to the huge tax concessions given to corporate houses and the consequent fall in tax revenues, the actual tax-to-GDP ratio came to only 9.9 percent.15 Consequently, the combined Centre+state tax-to-GDP ratio has come down further to about 15–16 percent.16
Despite such a low level of tax revenues, in the 2015–16 budget, Jaitley has announced a reduction in corporate tax rates from 30 percent to 25 percent over the next four years, starting from the next financial year. This is expected to provide corporates a total tax relief bonanza of Rs 2 lakh crore: Rs 20,000 crore in the first year, Rs 40,000 crore in the second year, Rs 60,000 crore in the third year and Rs 80,000 crore in fourth year.17 The Finance Minister has stated that this reduction in tax rates would be matched by removal of tax exemptions and incentives for corporate tax payers—these exemptions/ concessions led to a total revenue loss of Rs 62,399 crore in 2014–15.18 But whether this will actually take place is to be seen—in all probability, given the absolute pro-corporate nature of the government, nothing of this sort is going to take place.
Treading of the footsteps of Chidambaram, Jaitley has further deferred the implementation of the General Anti-Avoidance Rules or GAAR for two more years. The first time GAAR was attempted to be introduced was in 2012; since then, first the UPA government and now the BJP government have been postponing its implementation. The GAAR is meant to address important issues such as abuse of tax treaties, use of tax havens for the purpose of reducing tax bills and other clever tax avoidance arrangements that are draining the country’s resources. Several other countries around the world, including the BRICS nations of Brazil, South Africa and China, have introduced GAAR; but the Indian government is not willing to put in place legal mechanisms to check the widespread tax evasion that multinational corporations indulge in. Yet another proof of the absolute surrender of the Indian Government before multinational corporations.19
Public–Private–Partnership
Budget 2015–16 announces several more sops for corporate houses:
A significant increase of Rs 70,000 crore in investment in infrastructure in 2015–16 over the current year. A special focus is on building highways. The Budget increased the total Plan Expenditure of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways from Rs 28,881 crore in 2014–15 (BE) to Rs 42,913 crore in 2015–16, an increase of Rs 14032 crore.20
· The formation of a National Investment and Infrastructure Fund and tax-free bonds for raising funds for investment in rail, roads and irrigation. The Finance Minister stated that the government will ensure an annual flow of Rs 20,000 crore to the NIIF.21
The Finance Minister also emphasised the need for a revamp of the Public–Private–Partnership or PPP model. Calling the present model “weak”, he proposed that the government would need to further protect the private sector against investment risks in the infrastructure sector, and stated that the “ sovereign will have to bear a major part of the risk.”22
This last statement is absolutely amazing. As it is, under the existing PPP model, the government has been transferring mindboggling sums to the private sector. The private partner in this very special partnership is guaranteed a minimum rate of return on its investment (the government making up for any shortfall in profits), is given land and other resources at concessional rates, is often even provided the investment money by the government in the form of long term loans at concessional rates. To give an example, one form of PPP subsidy is what the government calls ‘Viability Gap Funding’ (VGF). In the name of making their investments ‘viable’, the government of India provides a direct subsidy to investors in the infrastructural sector of up to 40 percent of the project cost!23 As of March 31, 2012, the total cost of projects completed, under implementation or in the pipeline under the PPP scheme was nearly Rs 13 lakh crore.24 These projects are in highways, ports, airports, railways, power, urban infrastructure and other sectors. Assuming that most of these projects are receiving VGF grants @ 40 percent of the investment, the total public ‘subsidy’ to these projects works out to more than Rs 5 lakh crore.
Apart from VGF funding, the government also gives several other types of incentives to investors in the infrastructural sectors under the PPP model. Thus, private corporations building expressways and metro projects are additionally being given vast amounts of real estate for commercial use. Thus, in the case of the infamous Yamuna Expressway built by Jaypee Group under the PPP model, the Group was allowed to acquire five parcels of land along the expressway, each of 500 hectares each, for township projects. The expressway cost the Jaypee Group roughly Rs 13,000 crore. The Group must have got 40 percent of this, that is, Rs 5200 crore, as investment subsidy. But the real bonanza for the company was the 2500 hectares of land allotted to it—it acquired this land from farmers for around Rs 1500 crore (at the rate of around Rs 5 lakh to 60 lakh per hectare), and its present market value has zoomed to a whopping Rs 1.5 lakh crore!25 That is some deal!
Increase in Indirect Taxes
To compensate for this loss in revenues, the Finance Minister has announced an increase in service tax rate from 12.36 percent (including cess and surcharge) to a flat 14 percent. This is a very regressive way of increasing tax revenues.
There are two types of taxes, direct taxes and indirect taxes. Direct taxes are levied on incomes, such as wages, profits, property, etc., and so fall directly on the rich; while indirect taxes are imposed on goods and impersonal services, and so fall on all, both rich and poor. An equitable system of taxation taxes individuals and corporations according to their ability to pay, which in practice means that in such a system, the government collects its tax revenues more from direct taxes than indirect taxes.
Even in unabashedly capitalist countries from South Africa to Brazil to Mexico, the direct tax revenue as a percentage of total revenue varies from 55 percent to 65 percent. But in India, for every Rs 100 collected by the government as tax revenues, only around Rs 30 comes from direct taxes (and the rest, Rs 70, from indirect taxes).26 The latest taxation proposals of the Finance Minister to augment indirect tax revenues while giving yet more direct tax concessions only further increase the regressivity of the tax structure in the country. According to the Finance Minister, his tax proposals will result in a direct tax loss of Rs 8,315 crore, and an indirect tax gain of Rs 23,383 crore, resulting in a net revenue gain of Rs 15,068 crore.27
Reduction in Government Spending
The low revenue collections (as shown by the low tax-to-GDP ratio), combined with the keenness of the Finance Minister to reduce the fiscal deficit, has made him reduce the total Budget Outlay to even less than the budget estimates for 2014–15. In real terms, this implies that the government has reduced its total budgetary spending quite sharply.
Table 3: India’s Budget, 2014–15 and 2015–16: Reduction in Total Budget Expenditure and Plan Expenditure.28 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2014–15 RE
Change:
BE – RE
(%)
2015–16 BE
Change:
2014-15 BE –2015-16 BE
(%)
Budget Outlay
1,794,892
1,681,158
– 6.3
1,777,477
– 1
Plan Expenditure
575,000
467,934
– 18.6
465,277
– 19.1
GDP at Current Market Prices
(2011–12 series)
12,653,762*
14,108,945
Budget as % of GDP
14.1
13.3
12.6
* Advance Estimates (for definition, see Box 5)
As a proportion of the size of the Indian economy, the magnitude of Union Budget for 2015–16 (estimated size Rs 1,777,477 crore) has declined to 12.6 percent of the GDP. This figure was 13.3 percent for 2014–15 (Revised Estimates) and 14.1 percent for 2014–15 (Budget Estimates).29
Worse, the government’s projected Plan Expenditure has declined by a whopping 19 percent over the Budget Estimates for 2014–15. This is the first time that the Plan budget has been reduced.30
Sharp Cuts in Social Sector Investments
With total budgetary spending reduced below last year’s level, and the government continuing to provide huge subsidies to corporate houses, obviously, the brunt of the cuts in government spending have been borne by the social sectors in Jaitley’s 2015–16 budget.
Box 5: GDP statistics: Advance Estimates and Revised Estimates
The annual estimates of GDP for a financial year are first brought out two months before the end of the financial year, on February 7. This GDP figure is called Advance Estimates. These figures are later revised at least three times, on January 31 of the succeeding years. After the release of the Third Revised Estimate (RE), which is done two years and ten months after the completion of a financial year, the data more or less stabilises. (Thus, the first RE for GDP data for 2011-12 was released on January 31, 2013, and the third RE was released on January 31, 2015—this last figure can be considered to be the final GDP figure for 2011-12.)
As it is, the total public social sector expenditures of the government of India are very low! Jaitley and his predecessors in the Finance Ministry and the ‘Chicago boys’ who are their economic advisors are all blithely lying when they claim that the subsidies to the poor are very high! The total social sector expenditure of the government (Centre and States combined) of India is barely 7 percent of the GDP. (Of this, the Central government’s share is barely 2 percent of the GDP.) In comparison, the average public social sector expenditures of the 34 countries of the OECD is around 20 percent of the GDP, and for the EU-27 is even higher at around 30 percent of the GDP. The average public social sector expenditures for the 21 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean has been rising and is presently 18.6 percent (in 2009–10) (Chart 1).31
Most developed countries have a very elaborate social security network for their citizens, including unemployment allowance, universal health coverage, free school education and free or cheap university education, old age pension, maternity benefits, disability benefits, family allowance such as child care allowance, allowances for those too poor to make a living, and much more. Governments spend substantial sums for providing these social services to their people. People in the developed countries consider government investments on social security to be their right. In recent years, millions have come out on the streets in these countries to protest government attempts to reduce social sector spending. In contrast, in India, the propaganda dished out by the intellectuals–politicians–bureaucrats and the media condemns government spending on the people as subsidies, as being wasteful, inefficient, benefiting the wealthy rather than the poor, promoting parasitism, and so on; and so people do not consider government spending on social services to be their right, and there are no mass protests when school / college fees go up, or health care costs go through the roof, or bus fares skyrocket.
It is because of Indian government’s very low social sector spending that the Human Development Report released by the UNDP ranks India near the bottom with regards to overall human development. India’s Human Development Index ranking fell from 119 in 2010 to 135 in 2014 (in a list of 187 countries). According to the UN Human Development Report 2011, 53.7 percent of the Indian population is “multidimensionally poor”—a measure that captures how many people experience overlapping deprivations in living standards, health and education, and how many deprivations they face on the average.32
And yet Delhi’s Badshahs are further reducing the government’s social sector expenditures. In its budget 2015–16, the Indian government has further reduced its already low expenditures on social services. As shown in Table 2, government spending on the vulnerable and disadvantaged sections—women, scheduled castes and tribes, and children—has taken a big hit in 2015–16, by as much as 20–40 percent over the budget estimates for 2014–15. Consequently, the Central government spending on social services has fallen from an already low 2.23 percent of the GDP (excluding food subsidy) in 2014–15 (budget estimates) to 1.69 percent of the GDP in the 2015–16 BE. Including food subsidy, it has fallen from 3.14 percent of the GDP to 2.58 percent of the GDP over this period (Table 4).
Table 4: Social Sector Expenditures By Union Government.33 (in Rs Crore)
2013–14
2014–15
BE
2014–15
RE
2015–16
BE
Total Exp. under Social Sector Ministries/ Deptts. (Excluding Food Subsidy)
218,208
282,035
236,352
237,934
Total Exp. under Social Sector Ministries/ Deptts. (Including Food Subsidy)
311,525
397,035
359,718
363,408
GDP at Current Market Prices (2011–12 series)
11,345,056
12,653,762
12,653,762
14,108,945
Share of Social Sector Exp. (Excluding Food Subsidy) as % of GDP
1.92
2.23
1.87
1.69
Share of Social Sector Exp. (Including Food Subsidy) as % of GDP
2.75
3.14
2.84
2.58
The government is claiming that actual social sector expenditures are not going to fall as these cuts would be more than compensated by the increase in states’ share in Central taxes. The Centre has accepted the recommendation of the 14th Finance Commission to increase the share of the states in divisible pool of Central taxes from 32 percent previously to 42 percent. But as shown in Box 6A, the Centre has simultaneously reduced its funding for Central Assistance for State and Union Territory Plans by a whopping 40 percent. Therefore, the net increase in spending capacity of the state governments is very modest, by just 5.9 percent. (And for some states, like for instance Maharashtra, the net transfer of Central funds to the state has actually fallen—see Box 6B)! The Centre has cut its social sector spending by as much as 20 to 40 percent in most sectors, with the cuts going up to as much as 50–70 percent for the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Department of Land Resources and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj. The net increase in Central funding to the states is simply not enough to compensate for the huge cuts made in Central government spending on social sectors.
Furthermore, the class nature of the various state governments and the Central government is the same. In all likelihood, the state governments are going to utilise this small increase in Central funding to increase the subsidies given by them to corporate houses, instead of increasing their social sector expenditures. As we have discussed elsewhere, various state governments have been competing with each other to give subsidies to corporate houses for setting up projects in their states!
A: Increased Devolution to States: A Gigantic Fraud
The government is claiming that it has not reduced the expenditure on the social sectors in actuality, as these cuts in Plan Expenditures would be more than compensated by the increase in states’ share of Central taxes.
But the Centre, in a deft sleight of hand, has managed to keep the total transfers to states at nearly the same level as previous years while increasing states’ share in Central taxes by drastically cutting its spending on Central Assistance for State and Union Territory Plans! The Centre has unbundled the schemes for which it provides assistance to states into three categories. It will continue to fully fund those schemes which are mandated by legal obligations (e.g. MGNREGA) or are backed by Cess collection (e.g. funds for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan from the Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh), and also some schemes targeted at poverty alleviation. But for other Centrally sponsored schemes, some of them will be implemented with a changed pattern of sharing of resources, with States contributing a higher share; and for some schemes, the Centre has decided to stop Central funding altogether; if the states want to continue these schemes, they will have to do so entirely from their own resources.
As a result of this jugglery, the net increase in spending capacity of the States (combined for all States) in 2015–16 (as compared to 2014–15 BE) is projected to go up by only 5.91 percent or Rs 46,729 crore (see Table below).
Table: Transfer of Resources to States (in Rs crore)
2014-15 BE
2015-16 BE
Change (%)
States share of taxes and duties (1)
382,216
523,958
+37.1
Non Plan grants and loans to States (2)
70,019
108,630
+55.1
Central Assistance for State and UT Plans (3)
338,408
204,784
–39.5
Total Union Resources transferred to States (1+2+3)
790,643
837,372
+5.9
GDP at current market prices (2011–12 series)
12,653,762
14,108,945
Total Union Resources transferred to States as % of GDP
6.25%
5.94%
Sources: “Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16”, CBGA, March 2015, p. 9, http://www.cbgaindia.org; Union Budget documents, 2015-16.
B: Total Central Transfers to the State of Maharashtra, 2015-16
According to figures given in the Maharashtra state budget for 2015-16, despite the increase in the state’s share in Central tax revenues, the total transfers from the Centre to Maharashtra state for 2015-16 have actually fallen.
Table: Maharashtra: Devolution of Funds from Centre (Rs crore)
2014-15 BE
2015-16 BE
Change (%)
State’s Share of Central Tax Revenues
20,213
29,062
+ 43.8
Grants-in-Aid from Central Government to Maharashtra
27,958
17,869
– 36.1
Total Transfer of Central funds to Maharashtra
48,171
46,931
– 2.6
Source: Maharashtra state, Budget 2015-16 documents (unfortunately, budget documents not available online, taken directly from MLAs)
Therefore, it is obvious that combined Central and state government spending on various social sectors is going to take a big hit in this financial year
Actual Cuts to be More
Additionally, as several analysts have pointed out, the government projection for its tax revenues are much inflated. The Centre expects the gross tax revenues to go up by 15.8 percent in 2015–16 BE as compared to an actual increase of 9.9 percent in 2014–15 (see Table 5), even though it expects the GDP to go up by 11.5 percent in 2015–16, the same as in 2014–15. That is highly improbable; in all likelihood, the Centre’s gross tax revenues in 2015–16 are going to be below the target set for the year.34 If that happens, then obviously, the Centre will have to further cut its overall budgetary spending below the budget estimate for this year; since cuts in subsidies to the rich are a no-no, the axe will fall on social sector spending. Therefore, in all probability, the actual spending on social sectors this year is going to be much below the already low spending levels planned for this fiscal.
Table 5: Trends in Tax Revenues, 2013–14 to 2015–16.35 (in Rs crore)
2013–14
2014–15 RE
Change
2015–16
Change (over 2014-15 RE)
Gross Tax Revenues
1,138,734
1,251,391
9.89%
1,449,490
15.83%
Sector-wise Analysis of Cuts in Social Sector Spending
Let us take a more specific look at the cuts faced by the various sectors/ministries related to the social sectors.
Budgetary Resources Earmarked for Women
This is also known as the Gender Budget. The Gender Budget Statement (GBS), first introduced in Union Budget 2005–06, captures the quantum of budgetary resources earmarked for women by various departments and ministries.
India is one of the world’s worst places to be a woman. Firstly, she may be killed even before being born, or as an infant or a little girl. If she survives that, there is every possibility that as she grows up, she may be molested/raped/tortured by her husband. In India, a crime against a women is committed every 100 seconds: a woman is molested every 7 minutes, raped every 15 minutes (reported cases only, actual are obviously much more), one case of cruelty committed by either the husband or his relatives occurs every 5 minutes, and a dowry death occurs every 65 minutes (all figures for 2013).36
And yet, an insensitive government has slashed the gender budget by a whopping 19 percent this year as compared to the Budget Estimates for 2014–15. The total allocation under the GBS as a proportion of the Union Budget has in fact been going down over the last several years; this year, it is only 0.94 percent of the Union budget, as against 1.04 percent last year and 1.55 percent in 2011–12.
Table 6: Budgetary Allocations Earmarked for Women, 2014–15 and 2015–16.37 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Reduction (%)
Ministry of Women and Child Development
21,194
10,382
51
Gender Budget
98,030
79,258
19
Of which:
Department of School Education
and Literacy
16,208
12,472
23
As far as specific schemes go, although the list of schemes in the GBS is very long, the reality is, most of these interventions are only on paper, as reflected in the fact that they are very meagrely funded—of the 59 schemes meant exclusively for women, as many as 54 schemes have allocations of less than Rs 100 crore! Thus, soon after comimg to power, the Modi government had announced the setting up of ‘One Stop Crisis Centres’ for women across the country to provide assistance to victims of sexual assault—one in each district, 660 in all. This scheme has now virtually been scrapped, with only two crore being allocated for this scheme in Budget 2015–16. The allocation for a 24-hour Women’s Helpline to assist women in distress is a princely one crore! Allocation for construction of shelter homes for single women and destitutes, and Scheme for Assistance to States for Implementation of Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, has been totally withdrawn. And there is only a meagre allocation of Rs 30 crore for hostels for working women. Prime Minister Modi himself launched the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Abhiyan in January this year whose declared aim is to end discrimination against the girl child and educate her. However, the scheme gets only Rs 100 crore in this year’s budget, which is a mockery of this important slogan.
The key ministry that looks after women’s welfare is the Ministry of Women and Child Development. The allocation of this ministry in the Union Budget 2015–16 has been slashed by more than 50 percent over the budget estimate of 2014–15.38
Budgetary Outlays for Schemes for Welfare of Children
A nation can be judged by the way it treats its children. On that count, India metes out suffering, neglect and insecurity to millions of its very young. Indeed, India is one of the most dangerous places to be a child. Here are some of the reasons for this statement that may appear surprising to many of our readers:
We have the highest under-five child mortality rate in the world, with 16.55 lakh such deaths in 2011. More than two million children die every year from preventable infections including measles and tetanus.39
l Around 48 percent of all children below the age of five are stunted, 43 percent are underweight and about 20 percent are wasted.40
l India has the largest number of child labourers in the world. While official figures put the number of child workers in the country at around 13 million, a 2011 UNICEF report says that more than 28 million children in India between the ages 5–14 are engaged in child labour.41
l More than 8 crore children drop out of school without completing even basic schooling (that is, education up to Class VIII).42
And as for the girl child, it’s a miracle she survives at all! For all the reasons given briefly in the previous section, the child sex ratio in India (number of girls to a thousand boys) declined from 945 to 914 over the period 1991–2011. The 2011 Census reveals that there are about 70 lakh fewer girls than boys in the age-group 0–6 in the country, implying that millions of female foetuses have been aborted and young girls killed during the past decade.43
Appalling figures. And yet, the government has reduced the total allocations for child oriented schemes sharply by 30 percent in this year’s budget, as compared to last year’s budget estimate. The largest component of the Child Budget is for education of children; that has been slashed by 25 percent. However, from the point of view of child health, the most important scheme the Integrated Child Development Scheme. As the Budget itself puts it, it is meant to be “an integrated package of health, supplementary nutrition and educational services to children up to six years of age, pregnant women and nursing mothers.” Despite the terrible state of India’s children, the government has cut the allocation under this scheme by as much as 54 percent, as compared to 2014–15 BE!44
Table 7: Budgetary Allocations for Welfare of Children, 2014–15 and 2015–16.45 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Reduction (%)
Schemes for Welfare of Children
81,075
57,919
29
Of which:
Department of School Education and Literacy
54,101
40,757
25
Integrated Child Development Scheme
18,391
8,449
54
Resources Earmarked for Dalits and Adivasis
More than six decades after the Constitution outlawed the practice of untouchability and discrimination on the basis of caste, and guaranteed that every citizen shall have equality of status and opportunity, the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes continue to face many forms of untouchability practices as well as social, economic and institutional deprivations. Not only that, they are also subjected to enormous atrocities, ranging from abuse on caste name, murders, rapes, arson, social and economic boycotts, to naked parading of SC/ST women, and being forced to drink urine and eat human excreta.
In the 1970s, the government launched the Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP) and Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) to ensure the flow of targeted funds from the general sectors in the Central Ministries towards the development of the Dalits and Adivasis. The guidelines under these two programmes clearly state that the allocations for them should be at least in proportion to their share in the total population.46 The population share for the Dalits was 16.6 percent and for Adivasis was 8.6 percent according to the Government of India Census 2011. However, the allocations for SCSP and TSP never reached the stipulated norm of 16 percent and 8 percent respectively. In this year’s budget estimates, the allocation for SCSP and TSP has been sharply reduced, by as much as 38–39 percent over the 2014–15 BE. Consequently, the allocation for SCSP has fallen to just 6.6 percent and the allocation for TSP to a lowly 4.3 percent of the total Plan expenditure for 2015–16 (Table 7)!47
Table 8: Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan, 2014–15 and 2015–16.48 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE (1)
Allocation as % of Total Plan Exp.
2015–16 BE (2)
Allocation as % of Total Plan Exp.
Reduction:
(1–2)
(%)
Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan
50,548
8.8
30,851
6.6
39
Tribal Sub-Plan
32,387
5.6
19,980
4.3
38
Abandoning the Health Sector to God
The state of health care in the country is dismal. The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that countries should allocate at least 5 percent of the GDP for public health services. The advanced countries spend more than this; public health care spending as a percentage of GDP in 27 advanced economies rose from 5 percent to more than 7 percent over the period 1990–2008; while public health care spending in several emerging economies is between 3 to 5 percent of GDP.49 In contrast, India’s public health expenditure in India (Centre and states combined) was only about 1.3 percent of the GDP in 2013–14.50 Other calculations suggest that even this estimate is on the higher side, as it includes expenditure on water supply and sanitation; excluding this, the public health expenditure of India would probably be just around 1 percent of the GDP.51 According to the WHO, India ranks 171 out of 175 countries in public health spending, and is ranked even below the sub-Saharan countries.52
This has forced citizens to bear the brunt of health spending. India has amongst the most privatised health systems in the world—households undertake nearly three-fourths of all the health spending in the country (72 percent), public spending accounts for just 28 percent.53
Table 9: Budgetary Allocations for Health, 2014–15 and 2015–16.54 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Reduction (%)
Dept. of Health and Family Welfare
35,163
29,653
19.9
Dept. of Health Research
1017
1018
1.8
Dept. of AIDS Control
1785
1397
21.7
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare: Total
37,965
32,068
15.5
Ministry of AYUSH*
1272
1214
4.6
*Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy
Because of this low level of public spending, India’s health system is in “crisis”, warn the editors of The Lancet, one of the world’s most respected medical journals. India has not succeeded in controlling many infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, malaria, kala azar, filariasis, dysentry, typhoid, hepatitis and Japanese encephalitis. Malaria alone kills nearly 2 lakh people in India every year. Around 3 lakh people die of TB every year in the country, nearly 1000 a day. According to the WHO (2008), of the total number of deaths due to disease in a sample of 192 countries across the world, India accounted for nearly one-fourth of the deaths due to diarrhoea, more than one-third of the deaths due to leprosy and more than half of the deaths due to Japanese encephalitis. Of the seven million children who died before the age of five in 2011 in the world, one-fourth of these child deaths (1·8 million) took place in India. The bulk of these deaths are preventable, with an appalling one-third of the deaths being due to pneumonia and diarrhoea alone. India also accounts for one-fifth (56,000) of the 287,000 maternal deaths in the world in 2010, according to a UN report. Even as India has failed to tackle these long standing health challenges, it is also faced with another epidemic, of chronic diseases (like cardiovascular diseases, mental health disorders, diabetes and cancer). More than 50 percent of the deaths in India occur due to chronic diseases, with cardiovascular diseases being a major contributor. As a Lancet study points out, it is possible to address this challenge too, many inexpensive strategies are available, but again their implementation would require strengthening the public health system.55
Despite this appalling situation, the Union Budget 2015–16 has cut the already low allocations for the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare by 16 percent, or about Rs 6000 crore (from Rs 37965.7 crore in 2014–15 BE to Rs 32,068.2 crore in 2015–16 BE).56
Accelerating Commercialisation of Education
The state of India’s education system is alarming, to put it mildly. The Twelfth Plan (2012–17) admits that even after three years of the passage of the Right to Education Act which is supposed to guarantee free and compulsory education to all children in the age group 6–14, the drop-out rate at the elementary level is still as high as 42.39 percent!57
But this is just one aspect of the terrible state of education in the country. Seven decades after independence, the conditions in a majority of the schools are so bad that it is a “national shame”. More than 50 percent of the 8.4 lakh primary schools in the country are single, or at best, two teacher schools. And a staggering 70 percent schools have three or less than three teachers. More than 1 lakh primary schools in the country are single classroom schools (or were functioning in the open, without any classrooms), and a whopping 64 percent of the primary schools (5.3 lakh schools) function with three classrooms or less. What must be the quality of education being imparted to students in schools where a single teacher is teaching two or more than two different classes in a single room!
An official survey of 2011 found that: a whopping 21 percent of all elementary schools did not have functional drinking water facilities; 40 percent of the schools did not have usable toilet facilities; nearly 60 percent elementary schools were not electrified; 49 percent schools did not have libraries; and so on.58
And yet the allocations for education in the Budget 2015–16 have been slashed by as much as 16.5 percent as compared to the 2014–15 estimates! The SSA is the main scheme of the Central government for implementing the Right to Education Act and universalising education. This scheme is to be fully funded by the Central government. And yet, the allocation for this scheme has been cut by 22 percent—implying that the government is not even interested in putting all out-of-school children in school! The Mid-Day Meal Scheme is another very important scheme for elementary education that is supposed to be fully funded by the Central government. The allocation for this too has been chopped, by 30 percent. The country’s ruling classes are not even willing to spend money on providing a decent nutritious meal once a day for the country’s children!
Table 10: Budgetary Allocations for Education, 2014–15 and 2015–16.59 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Reduction (%)
Ministry of Human Resource Development
82,771
69,075
16.6
Department of School Education and Literacy
55,115
42,220
23.4
of which:
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
28,258
22,000
22.1
Mid-Day Meal Scheme
13,152
9,236
29.8
Department of Higher Education
27,656
26,855
2.9
Drinking Water and Sanitation: Swachh Bharat Mission
The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) is one of the most heavily publicised programs of the Central government, endorsed by the Prime Minister himself. It includes both the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA). It has both a rural and an urban component.
While the entire BJP political leadership, from the Prime Minister to the Finance Minister, have been harping on ‘Clean India’, the government is simply not willing to fund the Swachh Bharat Mission. It has cut the budget for the SBM by more than half!60
Table 11: Budgetary Allocations for Swachh Bharat Mission, 2014–15 and 2015–16.61 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Reduction (%)
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
15,267
6,244
59.1
National Rural Drinking Water Programme
11,000
2,611
76.3
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
4,260
3,625
14.9
Rural Development
As per Census 2011, nearly 83 crore people in India are living in rural areas, and constitute about 69 percent of the total population of the country. Therefore, all-encompassing development of rural areas is crucial for development of the country.
The BJP had declared in its election manifesto for the 16th Lok Sabha elections that the government would focus on improving village infrastructure. But like its other promises, this too has been buried and forgotten. The finance minister has in fact reduced the total allocation for the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) by 12.5 percent.
Table 12: Budgetary Allocations for Ministry of Rural Development, 2014–15 and 2015–16.62 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Change (%)
Ministry of Rural Development
83,852
73,333
– 12.5
Department of Rural Development
80,093
71,695
– 10.5
Of which:
National Rural Livelihood Mission
3,859
2,383
– 38.2
Indira Awas Yojna
16,000
10,025
– 37.3
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna
14,391
14,291
– 0.7
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Ac t
34,000
34,699
+ 2
Department of Land Resources
3,759
1,638
– 56.4
The most important programs under the MoRD are the Indira Awas Yojna (IAY), the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA). The Union government is seeking to transfer the IAY and the NRLM to state governments, and so allocations for both these schemes has been slashed by nearly 40 percent.
The flagship program of the MoRD is the MNREGA. On paper at least, this program, that is legislatively supposed to be fully funded by the Centre, has escaped the steep cuts that have been made in social sector spending of the Central government in the 2015–16 budget. The outlay for this program in the Budget 2015–16 has been pegged at Rs 34,699 crore, 2 percent more than the allocation for 2014–15 (a decline in real terms).
However, the fact of the matter is, even in 2014–15, the fund allocation for MNREGS was inadequate to meet the declared objectives of this act. The states had projected an estimated 278 crore person-days of work for 2014–15, amounting to an estimated cost of Rs 66,000 crore. The Ministry of Rural Development too had accepted this figure. But the Finance Minister allocated only Rs 34,000 crore in the budget for 2014–15.63 Consequently, in 2014–15, MNREGS was able to provide only 219.72 crore person-days of employment to 4.78 crore households, which works out to an average wage employment of 46 person-days a year—much less than the 100 days of employment guaranteed under the MNREGA.64 Furthermore, there are a very large number of households—probably around 20 percent of rural households—who desire work but are unable to get employment under this Act. (NSS data show that around 19 percent of rural households sought work but did not get employment under the MNREGS in 2011–12—that year MNREGS provided 211.4 crore person-days of employment to 5 crore households.)65
Secondly, even for providing this many person-days of employment (which itself is quite low, and hence a violation of the MNREGA, as the Act guarantees 100 days of employment to all people who desire work), the funds provided by the Centre proved inadequate and the states paid out Rs 6000 crore from their own funds. Therefore, even if the Centre wants to maintain MGNREGS at the same (inadequate) level as last year, the minimum outlay it should have provided is Rs 46,000 crore (consisting of Rs 34,000 crore plus Rs 6000 crore arrears plus Rs 6000 crore shortfall that caused the arrears in the first place); the fact that it has not done so but kept the provision at roughly the same level as last year therefore implies, in actuality, a huge cut, of 32 percent!66
Allocations for Food Security
This is yet another important programme whose allocations have not been cut by the Central government in Budget 2015–16, at least on paper.
Table 13: Budgetary Allocations for Food Secirity, 2014–15 and 2015–16.67 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Increase (%)
Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution: Food Subsidy
115,000
124,419
+8.2
GDP at current market prices (2011–12 series)
12,653,762
14,108,945
Food Subsidy as % of GDP
0.91
0.88
Even within the frame of the National Food Security Act, these allocations are not enough. According to the Government of India, as of now the Act is being implemented only in 11 states, that too partially. Therefore, a full roll-out of the Act would require considerable more budgetary support as compared to the food subsidy bill in 2014–15. However, Jaitley has increased the food subsidy budget by only Rs 2000 crore for this year, implying that the government is not anticipating any increase in the quantum of grain to be distributed through the PDS this year (and is assuming that grain would be procured at the same prices as last year).68
Actually, as we have discussed elsewhere, the National Food Security Act is a very inadequate act. It only partially addresses the huge problem of mal / under-nutrition in the country.
Firstly, the Act provides the poor only starvation foodgrains. While the Indian Council for Medical Research recommends that an adult requires 14 kg of foodgrains per month and children 7 kg, the bill restricts the entitlement to only 5 kg per person per month!
l Secondly, the Act provides only for cereals, with no entitlements to other basic food necessities such as pulses and edible oil required to combat malnutrition—whose prices have soared in recent years.
l Thirdly, the Act does not provide even this limited coverage to all the poor—it expands the percentage of the population that would be provided subsidised foodgrains through the PDS to 67 percent, but as has been pointed out by economist Utsa Patnaik, 75 percent of the rural population and 73 percent of the urban population are unable to access the minimum recommended 2200 / 2100 calories.
Even states like Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh have better food security acts. Thus, for instance, Tamil Nadu has a universal public distribution system, wherein each and every family, whether below the poverty line or not, is entitled to 20 kg rice free of cost. The PDS in Tamil Nadu also supplies other essentials like wheat, sugar, kerosene and tur dal at subsidised rates.69
The BJP had in fact criticised these inadequacies of the National Food Security Act in the debate in Parliament when this Act was being passed. Arun Jaitley had probed: “are we substantially expanding the right over what existed prior to this Bill being brought in? Are we substantially increasing the outlay? The answer is ‘no’ …” Murli Manohar Joshi had even moved an amendment demanding that “every person … shall be entitled to 10 kg of foodgrains, two and a half kg of pulses and nine hundred grams of cooking oil per person per month.” The BJP election manifesto for the elections to the 16th Lok Sabha had promised “Universal Food Security”, saying that it is integral to national security.70 However, after coming to power, the BJP has made a complete U-turn on this issue too.
Closer Look at Other Cuts in Social Sector Expenditures
Other social sectors have had to bear even sharper cuts in their budgetary outlays (Table 14). The Minister for Panchayati Raj has virtually been made jobless, with allocations for this ministry reduced to near zero. The allocation for the Ministry for Water Resources and River Development—that looks after another of Prime Minister Modi’s pet themes, river rejuvenation—has also been reduced by a third. The only river that the government is interested in is the Ganga; even this has not been given an allocation from the budget, instead, Rs 2100 crore from the National Clean Energy Fund has been diverted for the ‘National Ganga Plan’. Other rivers can continue to die …
Table 14: India’s Budget, 2014–15 and 2015–16:
Reduction in Budget Expenditure of Social Sector Related Ministries.71 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Change (%)
Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and
Ganga Rejuvenation
13,837
4,232
– 69.4
within this:
National Ganga Plan (funds allocated from National Clean Energy Fund)
1,500
2,100
40
Ministry of Agriculture:
Dept. of Agriculture and Cooperation
22,652
17,004
– 24.9
Dept. of Agricultural Research and Education
6,144
6,320
2.9
Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries
2,266
1,585
– 30.1
Ministry of Panchayati Raj
7,001
95
– 98.6
Ministry of Urban Development:
Dept. of Urban Development
17,629
16,832
– 4.5
Ministry of Housing and
Urban PovertyAlleviation
6,009
5,634
– 6.2
Yet, No Cuts in Defence and Police Expenditures
The squeeze in Central government spending has not affected the government’s spending on the military and police—they have remained at the same high level as last year in real terms. While the total social sector expenditures of the Central government fell by 15.6 percent in 2015–16 over the previous year’s budget estimates, the military expenditure rose by 8.7 percent and expenditure on the police by 4.5 percent.
The official military expenditure of the government of India is projected at Rs 3.1 lakh crore for 2015–16 (includes pensions). The actual military budget, or the unofficial military budget, is more than this, as a significant part of the budgets of the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Space (the former is responsible for making nuclear weapons, the latter for the missile programme, but no separate provision is made for either of those two expensive programmes) too should be included while calculating the country’s total military expenditure. Just the official military budget for 2015–16 is 17.4 percent of the total government expenditure, and is 31 percent more than the Centre’s combined spending on all social services (excluding food subsidy)—Rs 236,722 crore.
Table 15: Budgetary Allocations for Military and Police, 2014–15 and 2015–16.72 (in Rs crore)
2014–15 BE
2015–16 BE
Increase (%)
Ministry of Defence
285,203
310,080
8.7
Ministry of Home Affairs: Police
59,451
62,125
4.5
Likewise, the Centre’s outlay on internal security, that is, police, is Rs 62,125 crore. Add this to the military budget, and the total—Rs 372,205 crore—is more than the total Central spending on all social services, including food subsidy—Rs 362,195 crore.
Police is also a state subject, and the states too spend heavily on police
One can debate whether this or that head of expenditure that is included within the broad categories of defence and police should be called as expenditure on external security or internal security. For instance, a large part of the army is now deployed within the country, for internal security; while the Border Security Force, included in police expenditure, is also used to defend the country’s borders.
The protests within the country against the pro-corporate and anti-people policies of the government are increasing, and the government is increasingly deploying the police and even the military to repress these protests. There seems to be no shortage of funds for this.
The BJP—Twin Brother of UPA
To conclude, the Budget 2015–16 is not only a continuation, but also an acceleration of the neo-liberal policies being followed by the previous UPA government. Since 1991, ever since India began globalisation and opened up the economy to foreign multinationals, successive governments at the Centre have been running the economy solely for the profit maximisation of giant foreign and Indian corporations. The divisive, communal agenda being pursued by the Modi government is actually only a cover, to disguise its real economic agenda of running the economy solely for the profiteering of big business houses:
transferring lakhs of crores to foreign and Indian business houses in the name of promoting GDP growth;
cutting welfare expenditures on the poor—whose aim is to provide the bare means of sustenance to the poor at affordable rates—in the name of containing the fiscal deficit, and privatising and handing over these services to private corporations for their naked profiteering.
In pursuing this neoliberal agenda, the country’s ruling political class, that is, the political parties that dominate the Indian Parliament, the bureaucrats, the country’s leading intellectuals, and the big corporate houses, are actually wilfully and deliberately trashing the socialist vision of our nation’s founding fathers embedded in the Directive Principles of our Constitution:
to build an egalitarian society and a social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of the national life [Article 38 (1)];
to strive to minimise inequalities in income [Article 38 (2)];
to ensure that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity [Article 39 (f)];
to make effective provision for securing education and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want [Article 41];
to regard raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among the primary duties of the State [Article 47].
Another World is Possible!
A very large number of people have given up dreaming, they have stopped believing that things can be changed, they have come to accept their poverty and lack of decent employment and the present anti-people policies being pursued by the country’s rulers as their fate. However, if people unite and fight, it is possible to change the world, it is possible to build a new world. This is precisely what is happening in Latin America, where in several countries, powerful peoples’ movements have led to revolutionary governments winning elections and coming to power. These governments are implementing an alternate economic model, oriented towards improving the living standards of the poorest of the poor. Consequently, in just one decade, the average public social sector expenditures of the Latin American countries have gone up by four times, from an average of 4.8 percent of the GDP in 2001–02 to 18.6 percent in 2009–10!73
The Bolivarian Revolution
We give below a brief note on the numerous social programs launched in Venezuela after Hugo Chavez, the leader of the Bolivarian movement, won the Presidential elections in 1998. (Chavez unfortunately died in 2013 due to cancer. Despite the setback, the Bolivarian revolution has continued uninterrupted under the leadership of his successor, Nicolas Maduro.)74
Free, Universal Education
The Venezuelan Constitution guarantees free education to all citizens up to university undergraduate level. The government has put in strenuous efforts to ensure that this guarantee does not remain only on paper; additionally, it has also launched programs to educate all its adult citizens who have not completed basic schooling, and is even providing them the opportunity to purse higher education if they so wish.
In 2003, the new government launched Mission Robinson, a literacy and primary education program. In just two years, the program was able to teach almost 1.5 million Venezuelans basic literacy skills, and in October 2005, the United Nations body UNESCO declared Venezuela to be an “Illiteracy Free Territory”.
l Mission Ribas was launched to provide remedial high school level classes to Venezuelan high school dropouts. Classes are held in the evenings, the aim being to enable everyone to get a high school diploma. By 2011, more than 6 lakh people had graduated from high school under this program.
l The government has also launched Mission Sucre to provide free higher education courses to all those graduating from Mission Ribas.
Free / Affordable Health Care for All
The Bolivarian government has undertaken terrific new initiatives to provide free / affordable health care to all the Venezuelan people:
With the help of Cuba, the new government has set up health centres in the remotest and poorest areas of Venezuela; today, in these clinics, tens of thousands of Venezuelan doctors, dentists and nurses work. Hundreds of community medical surgical centres, medical diagnostic centres, rehabilitation rooms and high technology centres have also been set up across the country.
Ø Since most Venezuelan doctors practising in the upper middle class areas of the cities were not willing to work in these clinics on a fixed government salary, the government launched a new medical education program to train young people imbued with a spirit of social concern as doctors. There are no fees for the program, and the state in fact provides a stipend to students. In 2011, the first batch of 8200 students trained as community medicine doctors graduated from Venezuela’s Bolivarian University.
Ø Other initiatives include a law to regulate medicine prices and the setting up of a chain of medicine shops all across Venezuela to provide more than 1000 essential medicines at prices 30–40 percent below market prices. These shops also provide health services like free vaccinations, medical information, etc.
Healthy Food for All
The government has initiated a program to provide healthy food to all at affordable rates, by setting up a chain of shops throughout the country. These provide essential commodities to the poor at prices 60–80 percent below market rates.
It has even set up mobile high quality butcher shops to provide meat at less than half the price found in private outlets, and set up hundreds of restaurants to provide popular and healthy Venezuelan snacks like corn patties and juices and lunches at prices that are as low as 15–50 percent of market prices!
Housing for All
In 2011, the government launched “Great Housing Mission” to provide housing to every Venezuelan. For this, research was done to build durable and good quality houses using locally available materials, factories have been set up to make these materials using which houses can be made in a matter of a few weeks, and land has been identified to build these houses. Entire new socialist cities are being set up under this plan. Within two years (by 2013), more than 5 lakh houses had been built, and the mission has set a target of building 3 million houses by 2019. Low income families receive heavy subsidies to help them buy these homes, and those earning below the minimum wage receive their new homes for free.
l To improve people’s living standards, the government also imposed price controls on several essential household items such as soaps, detergents, cleaning agents and sanitary napkins. It also launched “Mission My Well Equipped House” to provide household appliances like refrigerators and washing machines to people at cheap rates.
Old Age Security for All
To provide security to senior citizens, the government rolled out “Mission Greater Love” to provide a pension to every senior citizen in the country, wherein all men above the age of 60 and women above the age of 55 will get a pension equal to the national minimum wage. Before the revolution, there were only 3.5 lakh people in the country who were receiving a pension, which was only 10 percent of the minimum wage. Now there are 19 lakh senior citizens enjoying a pension equivalent to the minimum wage; the government has even launched a drive to ensure that no one is left out. Senior citizen committees have been formed to involve them in educative, health and social security systems.
No wonder the media in India has blacked out all these news!
Let us Join Hands, and Begin Our Own Struggles
There is no doubt, the country is being ruled by the corporate houses. They control and fund the mainstream political parties. During election time, they come up with attractive slogans like ‘Garibi Hatao’ or ‘Achhe Din Aayenge’ and launch a media blitz with the help of a corporate-controlled media to sell us dreams of a better future; once the elections are over, whoever wins forgets all the promises made and goes about implementing the very same policies as the previous governments.
We need to see through this hoax, and build our own movements and organisations that will, in the years and decades to come, grow and take over the reins of power in the country and build a new society. This is not a utopian dream, it is possible. If people in Venezuela and Bolivia and Ecuador can do it, so can we! But for that, we must begin somewhere; only if there is a beginning will there be an end.
Dear friends, we are ordinary people—citizens of our country, who love our country—like all of you. Let us reach out to each other, understand each other, join hands and begin our own initiatives. Let us also support the various people’s struggles taking place across the country. Presently, these struggles are small. But in the years ahead, these struggles are sure to grow, and ultimately become a force that will transform society and build a new society that will guarantee to all its citizens all the basic necessities required for people to live like human beings and develop their abilities to the fullest extent—healthy food, best possible health care, invigorating education, decent shelter, security in old age, clean pollution-free environment.
References
1 “Jaitley terms Chidambaram’s fiscal deficit target of 4.1% as ‘daunting’”, Business Standard, July 10, 2014, http://www.business-standard.com.
2 “Jaitley goes for growth, delays cut in fiscal deficit”, February 28, 2015, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com.
3 See: Is the Government Really Poor, Lokayat Publication, 2014, p. 13; available on Lokayat website at lokayat.org.in.
4 We have discussed this in greater detail in our booklet: “Is the Government Really Poor”, ibid., p. 13.
5 All sources for all figures taken from Union Budget documents available at “Union Budget 2015–2016”, http://indiabudget.nic.in.
6 “Budget 2015–16 in eight charts”, March 3, 2015, http://www.thehindu.com.
7 “India’s billionaires list rises to all time high of 56: Forbes”, March 4, 2014, http://www.vccircle.com.
8Statement of Revenue Impact of Tax Incentives under the Central Tax System: Financial Years 2013–14 and 2014–15, http://exactuscorp.co.in.
9 P. Ramakumar, Seek truth from facts: Jaitley’s budget sharply cuts spending for the poor, February 28, 2015, http://ramakumarr.blogspot.in; The Medium Term Fiscal Policy Statement – Union Budget, http://www.indiabudget.nic.in; Government of India Budget 2015–16, ICRA Research Services, February 2015, http://www.icra.in.
10 Source: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
11 Ibid.
12 See, for example: “Arun Jaitley hints at special steps to boost public spending”, January 19, 2015, http://indianexpress.com.
13 Original source: IMF WEO Database, www.imf.org; taken from: “The ‘Fiscal Deficit’ Bogeyman and His Uses”, Aspects of India’s Economy, May 2013, http://www.rupe-india.org.
14Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability, March 2015, p. 11, http://www.cbgaindia.org
15The Medium Term Fiscal Policy Statement – Union Budget, op. cit.; “3 reasons why India’s tax–GDP ratio has fallen”, March 7, 2015, http://www.rediff.com
16 “India has among lowest tax/GDP ratios, no room for sops”, March 4, http://www.daijiworld.com
17 “Jaitley gave bonanza to corporates: Chidambaram”, The Hindu Business Line, March 1, 2015, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com
18 R Jagannathan, “Budget 2015: Chidu is wrong to claim corporates are main gainers”, March 1, 2015, http://www.firstpost.com
19Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 16–17.
20 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
21 “Budget 2015: Infrastructure investment to be raised by Rs70,000 crore”, Feb 28 2015, http://www.livemint.com.
22 Ibid.
23 “Behind the Attack on ‘Subsidies’”, Aspects of India’s Economy, No. 49, Aug 2010, http://www.rupe-india.org; FAQs – Public Private Partnership in India, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, http://pppinindia.com.
24Draft Compendium of PPP Projects in Infrastructure, 2012, p. 14, Planning Commission, Government of India, Jan 2013, www.infrastructure.gov.in.
25 “Yamuna expressway to become operational this month”, TNN, Apr 7, 2012, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com; Naazneen Karmali, “Road to Riches”, Apr 12, 2010, http://www.forbes.com; Jyotika Sood, “Road to disaster”, Jun 15, 2011, http://www.downtoearth.org.in.
26Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 18–19.
27 Ibid., p. 18.
28 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
29 According to the Budget documents, GDP for 2014–2015 was Rs 12,653,762 crore (Advance Estimates); and GDP for 2015–2016 has been projected at Rs 14,108,945 crore.
30Budget 2015–16: Analyzing the Estimated Budget: Where is the plan for most marginalised?, A Short Review by Delhi Forum, available on the internet at: https://groups.google.com.
31 For India: SAARC Development Goals: India Country Report 2013, p. 36, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India; For OECD: Government social spending: Total public social expenditure as a percentage of GDP, OECD iLibrary, Dec 20, 2013, http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org; For EU-27: “Chapter 3 – Social Protection Systems Confronting the Crisis” in Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2012, European Commission, Brussels, Jan 2013, www.europarl.europa.eu; For Latin America: Sustainable Development in Latin America and the Caribbean: regional perspective towards the post-2015 development agenda, United Nations ECLAC, July 2013, www.eclac.org.
32 “The ‘Fiscal Deficit’ Bogeyman and His Uses”, Aspects of India’s Economy, op. cit.; “India ranks 135 in human development index: UNDP”, TNN, July 24, 2014, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com.
33Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., p. 9; Union budget documents, 2015-16.
34 “Budget lays down multiple goals, but fails on fiscal consolidation front: C Rangarajan”, March 4, 2015, http://www.rediff.com.
35 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
36Crime against Women – National Crime Records Bureau, http://ncrb.gov.in.
37 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
38 See Table 1; Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 21–24; “Gender budgeting? Central allocation for 2015-16 lowest in five years”, March 08, 2015, http://www.counterview.net; Union budget documents, 2015-16; Piyasree Dasgupta, “All hype, zero delivery: Modi govt to build just 36 of the 660 promised rape crisis centres”, Feb 26, 2015, http://www.firstpost.com; “Save girl child, educate her, pleads Modi”, January 23, 2015, http://www.thehindu.com.
39 “India has highest child mortality rate in the world, says UN report”, PTI, September 13, 2012, http://indiatoday.intoday.in.
40Children in India 2012 – A Statistical Appraisal, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, op. cit.; India – Nutrition, www.unicef.org.
41 Nelson Vinod Moses, “5 reasons why India remains one of the most ‘dangerous’ places to be a child”, November 21, 2013, http://social.yourstory.com.
42Twelfth Five-Year Plan: 2012-17, Vol. III: Social Sectors, Planning Commission, Government of India, p. 53, http://planningcommission.nic.in.
43 “India loses 3 million girls in infanticide”, October 9, 2012, http://www.thehindu.com; Rita Banerji, “Census Reveals 17 Million Girls Killed in India in age group 1-15 years!”, October 2, 2013, https://genderbytes.wordpress.com.
44 See Table 1; Union budget documents, 2015-16.
45 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
46 “Union Budget 2015-16 reduces funds for SCs and STs”, March 5, 2015, http://www.downtoearth.org.in.
47 See Table 1; Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 31–34.
48 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
49 David Coady et al. (edited), The Economics of Public Health Care Reform in Advanced and Emerging Economies, International Monetary Fund, 2012, pp. 23–34, 288, http://books.google.co.in.
50Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., p. 50.
51 Mita Choudhury, H.K. Amar Nath, “An Estimate of Public Expenditure on Health in India”, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi, May 2012, http://www.nipfp.org.in
52 Nirmala M Nagaraj, “India ranks 171 out of 175 in public health spending, says WHO study”, TNN, Aug 11, 2009, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com
53 World Health Statistics 2013, World Health Organisation, 2013, Switzerland
54 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
55 All statistics taken from: “Is the Government Really Poor”, op. cit., pp. 39–40.
56 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
57 Twelfth Five-Year Plan: 2012-17, Vol. III: Social Sectors, op. cit., p. 53.
58 “DISE survey, 2010-11”, NUEPA, New Delhi, taken from: An overview of status of drinking water and sanitation in schools in India, http://www.dise.in; Elementary Education in Urban India: Analytical Reports, 2011-12, and Elementary Education in Rural India:Analytical Reports, 2011-12, NUEPA, http://www.dise.in; Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE: AnalyticalTables 2011-12, http://www.dise.in.
59 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
60Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 60–62.
61 Calculated from: Union budget documents, 2015-16.
62 Ibid.
63 Mridula Chari, “Economists fear changes to NREGA but fund squeeze is already curtailing its operations”, October 15, 2014, http://www.scroll.in.
64Response to Union Budget 2014–15, Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability, 2014, p. 34, http://www.cbgaindia.org.
65Of Bold Strokes and Fine Prints: Analysis of Union Budget 2015–16, op. cit., pp. 64-65.
66 [(46,000 – 34,699) / 34,699 x 100]. Source: “Budget 2015–16: Bonanza for the Corporates”, People’s Democracy, March 15, 2015, http://peoplesdemocracy.in.
67 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
68 “Food security, elimination of hunger low priority of Modi govt”, http://www.maeeshat.in; Budget 2015–16: Food Security, Malnutrition And Eliminating Hunger Low Priority For The Modi Government, Right to Food Campaign, New Delhi, March 3, 2015, https://groups.yahoo.com.
69 These issues and relevant references given in: “Is the Government Really Poor”, op. cit., pp. 46–48.
70 Sanjeeb Mukherjee, “Outlay shows states may go slow on food security plan”, July 12, 2014, http://www.business-standard.com; “Right to Food Campaign on Budget 14”, July 12, 2014, http://www.indiaresists.com.
71 Union budget documents, 2015-16.
72 Ibid.
73Sustainable Development in Latin America and the Caribbean: regional perspective towards the post-2015 development agenda, United Nations ECLAC, July 2013, www.eclac.org.
74 All the facts given below are taken from various articles available on the independent US-based non-profit website, http://venezuelanalysis.com.
The persistent electricity shortage is a key bottleneck in sustainable growth of India. Our per capita consumption (778 KWH) is one of the lowest in the world as compared to world average 2600KWH. Approximately 80.9 million households are still to electrify. And 42 percent of rural masses use kerosene –based lighting. So they pay 20-30 times more than they would pay for electricity based lighting. Supply is not sufficient even in urban areas. Still 6 to7 percent urban households use kerosene-based lighting.
12th plan’s approach paper says for GDP to grow at 9 percentage rate, commercial energy supplies will have to grow at a rate between 6.5-7.0 percent yearly. It suggests a 100 GW power capacity addition for the plan period 2012-17. An IEA (International Energy Agency) report concludes India need around 800GW-1200GW by 2050 as compared to present 199GW capacity.
Coal, oil and gas are non-renewable fossil fuels. They take millions of years to form and its reserves are depleting faster than new formation. About 65% of electric generated from coal and oil.
Hence it is on top in electric pattern generation in India. Low calorific value, less production capacity and growing demand for power forced India to import about 20% of its coal requirement. India import almost 76% of its oil requirement from middle-east countries and rest it meets by local production.
A rising India should give due heed to challenges posed by enormous energy needs. Oil and coal will remain the chief sources of energy for the foreseeable future. As a result, India will remain highly reliant on potentially unstable countries for its energy needs.
The erratic fluctuations in prices of crude oils and fossil fuels are great concern for us. This adds salt to owe of the masses. And businesses see its impact down the line up to the bottom.
Families feel the pinch when they go for basic needs. Oil demand is growing with the rising power demand. Thus, the price of oil will keep rising.Energy security is a critical issue for us.
It has political angle too and attracts the attention of eminent world thinker and politicians. Our former president Dr.A P J Abdul Kalam says “Energy independence is the lifeline of a nation.” US President Barack Obama made it an election issue in his 2008 campaign. He wanted to get rid of dependence on gulf countries due to oil import. So, he promised $15 billion yearly investment for research on green energy. On March 30, 2011 he said “My country can’t afford to bet our long-term prosperity and security on a resource that will eventually run out.
Therefore it is time to do what we can to secure our energy future.India stands at 6th in energy consumption with very little resources. It is very interesting and strained us to think on our planning like USA efforts in last 4 years. On one hand US efforts have decreases its oil import by 12% while on other hand it is increasing in India rapidly.
That is why, India must take serious endeavors to secure and control our energy future. That we can by harnessing all our resources that are available with a diverse energy portfolio.India is fortunate enough to be endowed abundantly with renewable energy (RE) resources. RE includes solar, wind, biomass and small hydro etc which are widely distributed across the country. And it can be utilized through commercially viable technologies to generate power. Hence it is accelerating the use of RE and is indispensable for India to keep its survival. RE technologies are based on the inexhaustible resources. These technologies offer sustainable energy alternatives to a world beset by serious environmental problems and volatile fossil fuels.RE has started showing visible impact in Indian energy scenario.
It is good news for us as it is now about 12 percent of total national eclectic installed capacity. Decentralized based RE and its distributed applications have benefited millions of rural folk. It is meeting their cooking, lighting and other energy requirements in an environmentally benign manner. RE have social, political and economical implications.
It reduces poverty among rural masses by supplying clean energy. It also generates employment at village level and ultimately improvement in the standard of living and creation of opportunity for economic activities at village level which are not possible in absence of this power.
Non-availability of power is a social issue for political actors. RE provide politicians to use RE as tool to solve this social problem in remote areas for political gains.Indian RE program is primarily private sector driven. It offers significant investment and business opportunities.
New investment in renewable has now exceeded US $10 billion yearly. India’s huge potential is likely to be even greater than 150GW. Yet, resources from sources such as plantation on wasteland and offshore wind farms have not mapped.
These have significant generation capacity and to harness this we need to a lot more. The potent solar power is likely to increase significantly with improvement in technology as solar power generation contributed more than 500MW in one year. RE has the potential to transform energy markets across the world. Globally, the clean technology industry is considered the next big high-tech industry (like IT sector).
Recognizing the sector’s potential, India should made a strategic plan for our overall growth similar to Mahatma Gandhi model. This means strengthening the rural India which can now possible by RE. There are thus many strong reasons for placing high priority on renewable energy development.
(Writer is Secretary UPNEDA but views are personal and based on different sources)
Founder – Coordinator, German Dalit Solidarity Platform.
Founding Member, International Dalit Solidarity Network.
Strong supporter of Campaign for Electoral Reforms in India
In October 2008 the “Campaign for Electoral Reforms in India (CERI)” was launched in Dhaka with an international conference after a preparation phase of more than two years. CERI is aiming to change the present Indian electoral system of “First Past the Post (FPTP)” (also called “Winner Takes All”) to any electoral system based on the principles of proportionality, preferably the Mixed Member Proportionate System (MMP). The protagonists of CERI are convinced that a proportionate electoral system (PES) is more conducive to create a society that provides a more genuine political space not only for the Dalits, but also for all minorities and pave the way for a society, which will be more egalitarian and more inclusive. Since its launch the campaign has made a very impressive progress, having been able to already convince some parties and people’s movements to join the campaign and/or also favour the PES. Meanwhile the Chief Elections Commissioner has constituted a Special Committee for Proportional Representation System to deal with this issue and reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of different electoral systems within the Indian context.
Disempowerment of Dalits in the present electoral system
For anyone who joins the international lobby and advocacy work, with the final goal of promoting the Dalit-issue, it will be unavoidable to hear the argument from parliamentarians of the EU or the European countries and also from diplomats from all over the world, that they can’t really understand or believe the ongoing suffering of the Dalits. This is because this group of people has political representation not only in the national parliament, but also in the State Assemblies. Such statements though simply echo the view of all Indian governments, and carry the insinuating question: why the Dalits did not and do not use this leverage to improve their political influence and put an end to caste-based discrimination and improve their economic situation? This is a very strong argument and it usually needs an elaborate explanation about why this actually has not happened and is still not happening.
Whenever one talks with Dalit activists in India about this predicament one will hear lamenting complaints and pejorative remarks about the ineffectiveness and self-centered attitude of Dalit representatives, their lack of leadership and visionary power. As a beginner working on Indian issues, I was always asking myself how this is possible, as 16 % of the seats in a parliament is indeed quite a substantial representation and should really lead to a remarkable influence! For a person, living in a country where, for example, “The Greens” with a poll of around 10 to 12 % can influence the societal discourse and not merely environmental issues to a considerable extent, this is really astonishing. Though the answer from the Dalit activists to all the related questions was not fully convincing, I could frequently read that the Dalits feel betrayed by Gandhi, particularly because of the election mode for the Dalit representatives. This mode is the result of the so-called “Poona-Pact”, a compromise to which the Dalit leader Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was forced to agree, threatened by Mahatma Gandhi’s fast unto death in the year 1932 in Poona, where Gandhi was in jail.
Ambedkar suggested at the round Table Conferences in London to apply the concept of “Separate Electorates” also for the “Untouchables”, in the same way, as it was similarly already available for other minorities, such as Muslims, Christians, Anglo-Indians and Sikhs. The British government agreed with Ambedkar’s suggestion and was prepared to foresee this system to be incorporated into the constitution for independent India. Gandhi strongly opposed it on the ground that it would disintegrate the Indian (Hindu) society. This argument doesn’t seem to be very convincing, as the system of “Separate Electorates” would allow the minorities not only to vote in their “own” electorate, but also in the general (i.e. common) one. It could be argued against Gandhi that this “double voting” could serve a twofold purpose: to strengthen on the one hand the identity of the respective community and, at the same time, give them the feeling of being part of a larger nationhood. Ambedkar’s suggestion thus could have become a real (dialectical) acid test for Nehru’s slogan of India being a being a nation of “unity in diversity”.
As Gandhi had not opposed this model in the case of the other minorities, there is definitely some logic in the argument that Gandhi has orchestrated this massive and coercive resistance towards Ambedkar’s move, because he deliberately wanted to perpetuate the dominance of the Brahmanic order over the Dalits and hold up their political powerlessness. One wonders, why Gandhi had not opposed this system of “Separate Electorates” on the ground of being “undemocratic” as it violates the iron principle of “one man/woman, one vote”, as it was coined later by South Africa’s Blacks freedom struggle. It may be due to the time that this argument was not used, when still not all democratic principles where ingrained in the minds of even freedom fighters. Anyway, this argument nowadays prevents CERI to simply revert back to Ambedkar’s ideas of “Separate Electorates” for Dalits when suggesting a new electoral system for India.1
What does the Poona-Pact-compromise look like and why did it actually have such disempowering consequences for India’s minorities, though also providing a representation in both the national and the state parliaments (“legislative assemblies”) equivalent to their proportion of the population?
As the FPTP system foresees one delegate from each constituency only, the number of seats in the parliament is always the same as the number of constituencies. It is, therefore, quite simple to provide a certain percentage of seats in the parliament for any minority: if a minority has, for example, a proportion of 15% of the population it will be only necessary to make sure that in 15% of the constituencies members of this minority will be elected. In the case of Indian Dalits it was decided that in 16% of the constituencies that are reserved for Dalits, all the contesting parties have to nominate a candidate hailing from one of the Scheduled Castes communities living in this constituency. Thus automatically Dalit representatives will occupy 16% of the seats in the parliament. The earmarked constituencies are called “Reserved Constituencies” and they are normally selected based on a high proportion of Dalits/Scheduled Castes in the population. Changes in the earmarking of the constituencies are possible.
This is a very simple solution and it could be argued that it will also contribute to the integration of the minorities into the political power system, if any party is forced to nominate Dalit candidates. However, if one analyses the realities of how this system of representation is used by the parties, one will find the following factors contributing to the disempowerment of Dalits:
The Dalit parliamentarians depend largely on the party establishments (who generally do not hail from the Dalit communities) for getting a ticket even in the ‘reserved seats’. It is quite natural that the party leaders don’t select very strong personalities, but rather those ones who will be always loyal to them. These representatives tend to follow their guidelines rather than developing their own Dalit agenda and consequently following a Dalit perspective for their political activities. Would they do this, they may be punished in not getting the ticket for their constituency again, thus forfeiting their political career.
In the FPTP system any parliamentarian who wins the constituency is the only representative of this area in the parliament. Hence it is his/her duty to “transport” all the political demands from all the different interest groups to the parliament, no matter how contradictory they may be. For a Dalit parliamentarian this may mean that he/she has to push for interests that may be detrimental to the interest of the Dalit people in the area. The usual argument for overcoming this quandary is that this very situation contributes to reconcile the contradictions in the interests of the different groups of people. This may hold strong for countries, where even the poorer sections have sufficient organisational strength to counter unilateral decisions, but it is hardly true for Indian circumstances. How can a Dalit parliamentarian develop a concise policy in the eyes of “his/her” people and struggle for it with credibility, if he/she has also to fight for the dominant interests?
The Indian polity has developed a law making strategy, which is all kippers and curtain, i.e. it is important to have a law as a showpiece only and hardly anyone is interested in its implementation and its actual effects on the life of the people. I would even go so far to say that – at least with regard to some laws concerning Dalit issues – most of the politicians support the law in parliament with the strong hope or even some certainty that nobody will take it seriously in its implementation. This means that most of the Dalit politicians are blinded by the fact that they have succeeded in getting quite a few progressive laws in their favour, (e.g. SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act or the Special Component Plan/Tribal Sub Plan in the budgets, or The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act etc.) but have not led to real changes in their societal position so far, as even they themselves have not done the necessary follow-up for effective implementation.
Can Dalits be empowered by a different electoral system?
This analysis leads to the question whether another electoral system can avoid such predicaments for parliamentarians and will provide more space and power for politicians belonging to minorities. The answer is ‘yes’, at least if a Mixed Member Proportional System (MMP) is chosen, which is one particular variant of the proportionate model.
In order to follow the arguments why this is the case, it is necessary to explain how the MMP-system works in comparison with the present FPTP-system.
The present electoral system in India is inherited from the British Colonial Powers and has definitely the advantage of being very simple, transparent and easily comprehensible, though not able to properly transform the will of the people into appropriate political power constellations in the parliament. For this system the country is divided into that many constituencies, as there are seats in Parliament. That candidate wins the constituency, who has gained most of the votes. The winning candidate usually comes from the largest community in that area and is additionally able to give some others the impression that he/she will also effectively represent their own communities. For minorities it is practically impossible to gain a seat, as they don’t have sufficient voters and usually the potential to convince other groups to vote for a candidate of their minority group. The votes from all the other competitors are lost and not counted, which means that in most of the constituencies 60 to 70 % of the voters are not represented with their will and interest in the parliament.
This problem is somehow balanced out only under the condition that there are only two larger competing parties, though it is still possible even under such a condition that the party gaining more votes will end up with fewer seats than its competing counterpart (e.g. in the US-election between Bush and Gore)!
Any sort of proportional voting system avoids such mishaps and ensures that the parties get exactly that number of seats which is in proportion to the share of votes the parties have gained, i.e. if party X has gained 16% of votes it will accordingly get 16% of seats in the parliament. This procedure allows also minorities to send their representatives into the parliament (at least as long as they are not too small in number) and, therefore, practically no votes (or only a small number) will be lost. Turning the will of the people upside down, (the party with fewer votes gets more seats), as can happen in the FPTP system, cannot occur at all in the proportionate systems. There are proportionate systems that are also very simple: the parties running for election put up lists of candidates and the voters just make their choice for one party. After the election the party chooses as many candidates from their list as it is eligible to send into parliament according to their percentage of votes. This system has the disadvantage that the candidates on the list may remain rather anonymous for the voters and may not develop a close link to a certain constituency or region.
The Mixed Member Proportionate System (MMP) tries to combine the advantages of systems, the majoritarian FPTP and the proportionate system, and to avoid their disadvantages. The MMP system, recommended by CERI, will have two votes for all voters – one for a candidate in the constituency and the other one for voting the list of a party.2 It will still remain fully pproportional, because all votes for the parties in all constituencies are summed up on the national (or the state, in the case of legislative assembly elections) level and then are transformed into parliamentary seats. That is the list-votes only decide the political composition of all seats in parliament in proportion to the votes, the parties obtain in the whole country or the whole state. This means that all seats, not only the 70% of the seats elected under the List-PR-system, are distributed according to the overall vote-share of the parties. The 30% of seats gained and distributed under FPTP (from the constituencies) do not interfere with this principle, but will become part of the “contingent” of seats a party gets under its share from the List-PR-votes.
With this combination, the MMP-system combines the direct connection (“rooting”) of candidates to a region (constituency), which provides for a rather high degree of accountability and “politics with a face” with all the advantages of proportionality, particularly the high probability that minorities can represent themselves in parliament.
The other important additional feature is that with the reservation component within the party lists, as proposed by CERI, it is quite likely to make the parliament truly inclusive with genuine representation of all groups of the society, though this will most probably be only a necessity for a limited period of time.3
What will be the effects of the different components of the MMP chosen by CERI on the Dalits and other minorities? How will the proportionate system avoid the factors (mentioned above) that contribute to the disempowerment of Dalits?
It was said that a Dalit politician, who develops a clear Dalit agenda and follows a clear Dalit perspective will most probably get into difficulties with its party establishment, as they are usually members of parties of higher and dominant castes. Hence he/she will be punished in developing such perspectives and will, therefore, most likely avoid doing so, as it is contrary to its own personal interest. In a PES, however, the Dalits will see sufficient space for making their own way, form their own party and exercise their political influence within the political arena. As such a party is in need of politicians with a clear agenda and a vision, any Dalit politician who will develop such qualities will be rewarded with leadership – and not punished, as it happens in the present system.
Further to this the “Winner takes All – system” discourages minorities to form their own parties, as they will hardly have a chance to win a constituency, as long as they are not making some deals with other groups. Therefore, I am quite convinced that an electoral system based on proportionality will soon lead to the foundation of a Dalit party or a coalition of Dalit parties, which will be in a position to follow a clear Dalit agenda.4
The MMP-system not only allows that two or, in a few cases, even three representatives from one constituency, sent by different parties, will get seats in the parliament. This makes it much easier for the individual representatives to follow their own priorities (resp. that of their respective parties) as they are not anymore the only one representing a particular constituency. If people want to present any issue in parliament they will approach that parliamentarian of their constituency who is closer to them in their political thinking and interests.
This, in general, will also lead to a shift from a very strongly person-centered type of politics to a more programme and concept oriented policies. Parliamentarians will more likely be individual representatives of their party’s policies rather than their own opinion leader. This consequently leads to more accountability and responsibility.
The third condition is surely the one, which will be least changed by the electoral system, though it will also have its influence – particularly if an emerging Dalit party will be able to gain power within a coalition government. Being then responsible for certain fields of politics their voters will also expect changes in their living conditions and in the implementation of laws and programmes created with the zeal to support them and improve their situation.
Having these ideas in mind I frequently discussed the question of political representation with the Dalit colleagues in India. It was an amazing experience that for most of them it was really difficult to even imagine an electoral system, which was so different to what is existing already. This is quite understandable, as the most important reference countries for them, Great Britain and the USA, both have the same or a similar system. The lack of imagination and research in this direction is also there in the intellectual and academic circles – therefore it was a real breakthrough when activist-intellectuals from CERI ventured into this completely new area of campaign and a very different approach to empower Dalits and other minorities in India.
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1. While studying other electoral systems the activists from CERI discovered that New Zealand, when reforming and changing its electoral system under the motto “Towards a Better Democracy” from 1992 onwards, found a brilliant solution to avoid the “democracy-gap” when introducing more than one electorate into their new system. In order to give a more genuine representation to the indigenous people of New Zealand, the Maori, two electorates were introduced, the “General Electorate” and additionally a “Maori Electorate”. To avoid double voting by the Maori people, every voter has to make a choice before voting: to vote either in the General or in the Maori Electorate. In order to keep the proportionality, the Maori electorate has as much constituencies as seats in the parliament would make up its proportional representation. In spite of this, any Maori person has still the choice to contest in the general electorate. This solution could also be applied to the Indian situation, thus ingeniously taking up Ambedkar’s ideas and making them practicable under present conditions, avoiding that members of the minorities would have two votes, whereas the members of the general population would only have one. Following this line of thinking and introducing e.g. a “Dalit Electorate”, other minorities may also demand for such a solution and, in fact, it would be logical to also introduce other electorates at least for Muslims and Adivasis/Tribals.
2. CERI recommends a distribution with a ratio of 30% FPTP seats elected from single-member constituencies (“direct seats”) and 70% party list seats (“list seats”) though such a system may appear too complicated for the Indian situation. CERI is, however, convinced that the Indian voters (particularly the poor ones) have sufficiently proven during the last 60 years that they are fully aware of the power of voting – probably the only real power they have – and will also be able to understand and handle the system with two votes. Bringing in MMP (instead of the option of having different electorates, as explained in footnote 1) will further not mean a total departure from the past electoral praxis in India, while at the same time it will integrate the important principle of proportionality in political representation in India and keeps the “reservation principles” within the party-lists. Anyway, it was indeed a difficult decision for CERI to choose MMP, but it was finally felt that the shift to the New Zealand model would be too a drastic change in view of the present situation in India.
3. The principle of proportionality and the reservation system are two methods to basically achieve the same goal: to provide a genuine representation for any relevant group in a given society. It is assumed that within the Proportional Electoral System (PES) any relevant group will form its party in order to push its interest into the political decision making process. Hence (theoretically), it doesn’t need any quota or reservation system for minorities, as they can form their own party, if they feel the need for political representation. However, the example of the insufficient women representation also in parliaments of countries with a PES shows that the proportionate representation of different societal groups is not at all a “natural” process, emerging automatically. That some parties even within these countries have introduced quotas for women (e.g. “The Greens” and the “Left” in Germany) clearly shows that disadvantaged and marginalized groups need both systems, at least for a certain period of time until the conditions of their participation have improved.
4. There is not sufficient space here to analyse the example of BSP. It is, however, clear that even BSP always had to make considerable offers to other groups in order to gain power. That the BSP example could not be replicated in other states also shows that BSP’s success story has some very specific conditions, which need further analysis. I am, however, convinced that the shift to PES provides much more political space for Dalits all over India, provided they will also find the strength to make reasonable compromises amongst themselves – between the different jatis. But these should be much easier to achieve compared to the ones necessary with other political parties and societal groups.
Abstract: Many studies have warned that the alarming depletion of water table in many parts of India, unless urgently and effectively arrested, would be irreversible. This steep decline is traced to the over-exploitation of water for human consumption and agriculture. This paper postulates that the culprit behind the dramatic fall in water table can be attributed to one particular change in the farming methods – the use of chemical fertilizers. The use of chemical fertilizers has “opened” a traditional “closed cycle”. When one moves from a closed-cycle to an open-cycle, the system becomes unstable, unpredictable and unsustainable. While the focus of the paper is to evaluate the sustainability of ground water in the context of chemical fertilizer use, it is important to note that changing farming practices have further contributed to severe decrease in soil fertility and crop (genetic) diversity, increased energy consumption and consequent GHG emissions, excessive dissolved salts in water, and a general decline in robustness of the agricultural system to face climate-change vulnerabilities. The paper attempts to revalidate the ability of a closed-cycle system to support sustainable water resources and, possibly even, agriculture.
Introduction:
Water is fundamental to survival and development. While the total quantity of fresh water available might be adequate for current global population (demands) its distribution, accessibility and availability is inconsistent. The world’s most populous countries, India and China have per-capita water access of less than 500 m3/year and 1700 m3/year of respectively. These regions are already water stressed with projected figures indicating a 40+% stress by 2025. Stresses beyond this can have an irreversible cascading effect resulting in famine and starvation. Irrigation accounts for most of the water consumption (85%). The current domestic demands of 8% are the lowest in global comparison, with nearly 230 million inhabitants in south-Asia having no access to improved drinking water sources (WBCSD, 2006). Increasing rural-urban transitions, lifestyle changes and population growth will further increase domestic and agriculture water demands. It is evident that further change in irrigation water-demands will severely affect domestic water availability and sustainability of the region (Frank van Steenbergen and Tuinhof 2009). Irrigation water demands are determined by the farming practices. The noticeable farming practice that has altered in the few recent decades is the adoption of and dependence on inorganic chemical fertilizers. Sustainability of a society implies a state of economic progress in a way so as not to do any irreparable damage to the environment (Kumarappa, 1957). The following sections discuss the sustainability implications of India’s irrigation water demands in the context of fertilizer use.
Sustainability – Agriculture: Traditional farming practices in South Asia were mainly a rain-fed operation, with two harvests in the year; the Kharfi or the autumn harvest and the Rabi or the spring harvest. The transitions between these two cropping sessions were marked with the sowing of various legumes, greens and clover to supplement the lands productivity by enriching the soil with organic nutrients. These organic nutrients are in addition to chaff and cow dung. The first monsoon rains prompted the sowing of the kharif crops and were followed with heavy rains that irrigated the fields and also brought in surface nutrients. The farmers were well aware of variability in climate and the nature (time and intensity) of the first rains revealed the season ahead. In response the farmers adapted to sowing drought-resistant (or flood-resistant) seeds and vegetables (de Boef, 2008) and were extremely knowledgeable in the use of diverse crop and seed varieties in response to varying climatic conditions. Seasonal variations, droughts and floods were not uncommon, but the traditional systems evolved to handle this. A diverse gene (seed) pool was maintained locally through sacred groves or wild-patches and the farmers were extremely adept at responding to climate variability with seeds diversity (Tripathi, 2000; Down to Earth, 2009). Sustainability was possible when the system was fundamentally able to deal with uncertainty (climate variability and change) with (genetic) diversity and adaptability (practices). Ensuring and retaining environmental (farming) vitality (crop diversity and soil nutrients) was crucial for crop yield in lean times. This was ensured through inter-cropping and organic nutrients (UN, 2003; Ladha et al., 2005). A good crop yield is particularly critical to ensure the livelihood of the majority of India’s population occupied with agriculture and allied activities. Of the 6% photosynthetic efficiency (Miyamoto, 1997), if it is assumed that the yield of grains take up 3%, the remainder of 3% of harnessed solar energy goes to the soil as nutrients, given the mixed cropping pattern followed; so practically with every harvest there is a 3% increase in soil nutrients.
Proving the “Malthusian theory” wrong has been mankind’s greatest endeavor in the green revolution – irrigation and use of chemical fertilizers. While it is difficult to debate their success in supporting a burgeoning population, they have been a classic example of weak sustainability. Weak sustainability operates on the premise that economic forces are supreme and can yield nature to predictable (immediate) outcomes (Mani et al., 2005). But, it is also known that they threaten the long-term vitality (strong sustainability) of the system, and as is evident the extensive irrigation and use of chemical fertilizers have only resulted in a drastic decline in crop diversity (regular irrigated conditions), but has also decimated soil fertility (Fukuoka, 1978; Holt-Gimenez, 2006; Harvey, 2010) and denied farmers any livelihood security. Sustainability is primarily to do with a community’s self-reliance and ability/preparedness to respond to uncertainty and change; and not associated with standardized attempts to control uncertainty and change.
Traditional Agriculture Cycle – Overview: While India is gifted with ample rainfall in most regions, however, the rainfall is characterized by frequent heavy spells. This has particular relevance as run-offs, which are generally sediment rich, can be high and with a constant risk of flooding. The dry spells are severe and most surface-water sources run dry leaving ground water as the only source to rely on. To alleviate the conditions of frequent high rains and alternating dry spells, tradition evolved to adopt a system of interconnected lakes and ponds (Reddy and Char, 2006; NWP 2007; Frank van Steenbergen and Tuinhof 2009). These lakes and ponds acted as buffers to store excessive rains water, sumps for fertile silt and nutrients and also provided for year round supply of water during the dry season, in addition to augmenting ground water recharge. The ponds were also in close proximity, convenient and with no problems of mosquitoes as the pond ecosystem ensured a rich aquatic biodiversity that keep the larvae breeding under check. The agricultural practices were also intertwined with this system. The cycle of food production that was being followed since time immemorial is illustrated in Figure 1. When the lake/pond water levels reduced, exposing lake beds in summer, the farmers harvested this nutrient rich silt from the lake bottom to be used as organic fertilizer to enrich the soil. This helped them save on other fertilizers like leaves, compost and animal dung which was often used as a source of fuel (cowdung cakes) for cooking. The desilting of lakes, which was done every summer, year after year, possibly for tens of centuries, also helped in maintaining the storage capacity of the lakes and tanks and also provided easily accessible local nutrients to fertilize the fields. The farmers were self-reliant with their livelihood sustained well. This cycle was a closed one and thus sustainable.
Fig. 1 – Traditional farming cycle
Modern Agriculture Cycle – Overview The demand for food production increased with a burgeoning population. This demand acutely felt in the 1960’s in India could not be immediately accommodated by the traditional farming cycle. Irrigation and modern technology devised mechanisms such as tapping deep aquifers and chemical (inorganic) fertilizers that ensured a good predictable yield; the apparent vulnerability of depending on the (uncertain) monsoon also declined along with specialized few (high yielding) of seed varieties. Native seeds meant for dry spells were rendered useless. The momentary higher yield of the chemical fertilizer in comparison to traditional farming practices (Harvey, 2010) was considered a boon and was adopted rampantly at a global scale to support a gleaming green revolution. These chemical fertilizers were subsidized by the government to encourage use and as an (industrial) economic impetus. In many regions chemical fertilizers completely replaced the use of organic and natural fertilizers. The practice of desilting of lakes and tanks beds for nutrient rich soil stopped, and in a few decades farmers were entirely dependent on the fertilizer supply regulated by the government. Unchecked drawing of ground water for irrigation was also encouraged by free electricity to operate irrigation pump-sets.
It is important to note that chemical fertilizers use petroleum products/natural gas as the primary energy and resource input material (urea) in addition to mining (phosphates) (Matson, 1997; Harvey, 2010). The photosynthetic efficiency still remains the same, except that the nutrients being supplied are inorganic and fossil fuel energy dependent. In comparison to the yield from organic nutrients the energy input in yields from chemical fertilizer use is higher by an order exceeding 65. In addition with constant application of inorganic (chemical) fertilizers made the soil sterile with no natural (nitrogen fixation) ability to generate nutrients; it only served as a sterile substrate for growing seeds on chemical fertilizers. Practically, the harvest from chemical fertilizer use is a petroleum derivative and not an organic/vegetative derivative. A comparison of nutrient values of yields from both organic and chemical fertilizer-use has clearly indicated a disparity, with the organic-fertilizer yield being far superior (Fukuoka, 1978; Edwards et al., 2007). Many experimental studies have shown that in the long-run, yields from organically fertilized lands are superior to that from chemically fertilized lands with almost 25% lower energy-input footprint (Harvey, 2010). In addition, with the adoption of the same “high-yield” seeds for irrigated fields, the pests were evolving to be specialized in infesting the crops requiring the extensive, rampant and dangerous use of pesticides.
Extensive application of these pesticides resulted in their residues flowing into lakes and ponds and disrupting the aquatic ecosystems and making them unproductive. This resulted in extensive breeding of mosquito larvae with threats to local habitations. With growing demand for land, silted and unproductive lake/pond and increasing mosquito menace, reclamation of the lakes/ponds was the inevitable consequence. With enriched local silt (fertilizer) no longer accessible and naturally unproductive farmlands, the farmers were constantly dependent on government subsidized fertilizers. In addition, with a lost local diverse seed-pool, they were further dependent on the apparently “higher yielding bio-engineered” seeds supplied by the government and/or commercial mechanisms making them completely vulnerable to externalities with their ability to be self-reliant completely decimated (Newman, 2006; Jentzsch, 2007). Thus the farming practice shifted from a closed-cycle to an ever vulnerable, unpredictable and unstable opencycle (see Figure 2.)
Figure 02 : Current Modern Farming Cycle
Agriculture and water security/availability: Current State The persistent application and use of chemical fertilizers lead to the lakes not being deslited with unchecked flooding (and run-off of fresh water to the sea) and further impeding the storage capacity of the lakes and ground water recharge. In India, ‘the ground water table is depleting due to overdraft; water logging and salinization due to mostly to inadequate drainage and insufficient conjunctive use; and pollution due to agriculture, industrial and other human activities’ (Raju et al, 2008). In Gujarat and Rajasthan ground water over use has resulted in geogenic fluoride contamination; in Punjab, Haryana, Western Rajasthan and coastal India, ground water is increasingly saline and unfit for consumption; in West Bengal geogenic arsenic contamination is evident; and in most states in Southern India the well yields are declining rapidly, at nearly 2-3 m/year in many cities. Water levels have dropped more than 4 meters between 1981 – 2000 at the rate of 0.2m/year in nearly (Chadha , 2006).
In Karnataka groundwater utilization for irrigation has increased from 1.35 lakh hectares in 1960-61 to 8.61 hectares in 1997-98 accounting for 85-90% of groundwater use. Ground water caters to 85% of rural drinking water needs and nearly half of urban and industrial requirements in Karnataka. 36% of rural areas receive less than 55 liters per capita per day (LPCD) which is the minimum prescribed by the State Water Policy – 2002 (GoK 2004). An estimated 3 lakh wells dug in the 1970’s have run dry, and bore wells have replaced shallow open wells. Currently the state comprises two lakh drinking water bore wells and 12 lakh irrigation bore wells (as against two lakh irrigation wells around 1970’s). Nearly 50% of 234 watersheds studied in Karnataka are overexploited. A detailed study conducted in Bangalore’s Ward 39 indicates that the maximum bore well depth has increased from 200 feet in 1985 to 400 feet in 1995 and currently in excess of 500 feet. Deeper wells have resulted in geogenic contamination (fluoride, arsenic, etc.) and excessive hardness. It is interesting to note that Karnataka hails as the the seventh largest consumer of fertilizer and pesticides in India. An estimated 10-15% of pesticide application reaches the target pests, the rest being dissipated in the air, water and soil. In addition nearly 30% of the state’s tanks have lost their water holding capacity and the rate of silt deposition is an estimated 8.51 hectare meter/100 sq.km/year. This is now directly affecting water availability for hydel power generation (Raju et al, 2008).
While these incidences might look disconnected, they are in fact intricately linked within a closed-loop of human interaction with the natural system. Traditionally the farmers relied on the lakes/ponds/tanks and the open well water for domestic use. With these water sources running dry, the farmers were unable to cultivate in the dry seasons and in addition had to expend most of their productive time in fetching water from distant sources for domestic consumption. Inadequate income from cultivation, saw a shift in occupation, with the larger population of small farmers moving to nearby town and cities as migratory casual laborers with the agricultural system now running the risk of complete disruption (Chadha, 2006). Medium and large farmers could irrigate their farmlands with copious deep-well water (by installation of pumps), initially drawn from depths of 30-60 m in the 1990’s. The government stepped in to help the farmers by providing subsidies to dig bore wells and free power to operate the pumps. This provided an impetus for an unabated increase in bore-well installations and ground water withdrawal resulting in a steep decline in the water table. Pumping water from increasing depths further increases the investment for higher capacity pumps (2 kW – 10 kW) in addition to further increasing (fossil fuel dependent) electricity demand. In comparison to shallow wells, deep aquifers are usually recharged much slower (Winter et al., 1998), over centuries of water percolation through geological formations. Unrestrained extensive withdrawal saw the aquifers running dry even at depths of 200-300 m. This drying of deep aquifers is often followed by infiltration of saline water along coastal reaches which is unusable. Further, digging bore wells is a capital intensive process and many farmers simply could not afford, it even with government subsidy. The system shifted away from an open well, low rate of investment, as open wells require local labour and relatively insignificant rate of investment, that often depended on indigenous non electricity-dependent mechanisms to draw water for irrigation. Bore wells on the other hand, essentially required electricity and a much higher rate of investment. This investment was unaffordable to majority of subsistent farmers leaving them to increasing dependent on rainfall as the only source of water because the lakes/ponds/tanks have silted and the open wells dry. This threatened their livelihood and often made them victims of local money lenders charging unheard-of interest rates. To many farmers, suicide comes as a relief from further impoverishment, debt and unproductive lands (Newman, 2006; Holt-Gimenez et al., 2006). A study of the ground water depletion in three India states of Rajastan, Punjab and Haryana provides an insight into the alarming drop in ground water tables (Rodell et al., 2009). While this data applies to three states, the situation amongst other parts of India, and also possibly the world, is not very different (Hollander, 2009). The water table in villages around Bangalore (Karnataka state, India) has fallen from around 7 m to 300+ m in the last three decades (Singh et al., 2009) with most of the lands being over exploited (Raju et al., 2008, GoK, 2009) and increasingly infertile. Such consequences of a shift from traditional farming practices to extensive dependence on inorganic (chemical) fertilizer-use, though difficult to perceive, is valid, and most pronounced in rural areas (accounting for nearly 65% of India’s population).
India: food and water security It has generally been acknowledged that the green revolution (for food security) has been made possible through the extensive adoption of chemical fertilizers. However, this has not been without consequences. Tracing the trends in agriculture over the past five decades reveal insightful observations. Figure 2 illustrates trends in grain output, irrigated area and fertilizer use in India since 1950 (RBI, 2008-09), prior to the start of the green revolution. The 1950’s saw the government’s initiatives in building irrigation infrastructure including large dams and canals. One can see that the growth in grain output started almost immediately, even prior to the adoption of chemical fertilizers.
Figure 2 (a): Trends in grain production, irrigated area and fertilizer use in India (1950-2008)
In fact the growth in grain output is more closely linked to the growth of irrigated land rather than the growth of chemical fertilizer usage. As illustrated in Figure 2(b), trends in the 1950’s and the 60’s (Fig. 2b) indicate that fertilizer use was yet to take off. During this period the irrigated area grew consistently and the food production followed this graph, clearly indicating that food grain production was more closely linked to the area of irrigated land rather than fertilizer usage.
Figure 2(b) – A closer view of the growth in fertilizer usage, irrigated land and grain output during the initial years of “green revolution”.
However, from the perspective of sustainability, the efficient performance of dam-based irrigation systems is questionable (Hussain, 2005; Rodell et al., 2009; Tilt et al., 2009; Gilbert, 2009) and would bring up another set of issues and problems that need to be addressed. Further, the argument that the per hectare yield in India is far lower when compared to countries like China, Japan, USA, etc., where the usage of chemical fertilizers are more extensive is frivolous, as the very production of chemical fertilizers is itself not sustainable given the fact that it is fossil-fuel based, as discussed earlier in this paper. Gilbert (2009) has recently highlighted the unsustainability in the use of phosphate fertilizers stating ‘Phosphate-based fertilizers have helped spur agricultural gains in the past century, but the world may soon run out of them’.
Conclusion: the vicious cycle The paper reiterates the fact that traditional agricultural practices have moved from a sustainable “closed cycle” system, to an unsustainable “open cycle” system. The sourcing of water from deeper bore wells has lead to another set of problems as these are usually termed as fossil waters and are rich in geogenic fluorides, arsenic and other dissolved salts (Raju et al, 2008). In fact this is a grave problem faced by the country (Rao et al., 2008). For treatment and domestic use of such water, one needs to subsequently depend on reverse osmosis or chemical treatment of water which result in salt-rich residues/sludge that requires careful handling and treatment. This, needless to say, is difficult to operationalize, and the causal disposal of residual salts/sludge would progressively result in other environmental problems, viz., contamination of fresh surface-water reservoirs, toxic grounds, etc. Here, the dissolved salts that have over a few millennia remained deep in the Earth’s crust are being pumped to the surface at an alarming rate. In addition these technologies are power intensive and can be currently traced to fossil-fuel use. The process by which this system has become unsustainable is explained by the simple “arrow diagram” shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 – Causal progression indicating consequence of increased dependence on chemical fertilizers
One can state that ‘the deeper one goes for resources, the less stable/sustainable the system’. A closed-cycle system would never leave open-ended toxic wastes/residues, and reviving the closed-cycle (see Fig. 1) system would be a solution for long-term sustainability (strong sustainability) (Orecchini, 2007). Residues from a closed-system are generally completely bio-degradable and replenishable. An important rider is that the rate of consumption should be conducive to the rate of replenishment. If not scientific logic, pure necessity is already pushing mankind in this direction. A solution to address the decreasing ground water table is to rejuvenate the lakes and water bodies as mandated by the Jala Samvardhane Yojana Sangha (Raju et al., 2008). But this requires extreme caution, as pollutants in the form of fertilizers, pesticides, lead (from electronic printed circuit boards and batteries), mercury (from fluorescent lamps), etc., would be found in these water bodies. There is an impending risk of these pollutants leeching into the ground water.
In recent years numerous debates are questioning the ability of modern industries and market economies of contributing to a sustainable world (Edwards, 2010; Latouche, 2010; Nigam, 2011). As Mahatma Gandhi observed nearly four decades back that, “Industrialization is, I am afraid, going to be a curse for mankind”. The Gandhian economist Kumarappa (1957) had propounded the Economy of Permanence defining sustainable society as one that manages its economic growth in such a way as to do no irreparable damage to its environment. Causing no irreparable damage is in effect to operate a closed-cycle.
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Co-authors:
Yatish Dravid
Design Graduate
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, India
Vivek Umarji
Design Graduate
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, India
Associate Professor
Hydrology Research Laboratory
Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources
The University of Sydney, NSW
Australia
Abstract
Floods have a devastating effect on human lives and local economies, and therefore the traditional government risk management approach has been to reduce the occurrence probability of floods. As such, the preferred method of flood control is through river regulation and building of dams. While this has been successful in reducing the occurrence of minor to intermediate floods, it comes at significant costs, socio-economic disruption and environmental impact. In addition, even the most regulated rivers are not risk-free in terms of flooding. Given these observations, alternative options in flood management such as “living with floods” are worth considering. With projected changes in the climate, such alternatives become even more attractive.
Introduction
Floods have a devastating effect on the livelihoods of people in many countries (e.g. Yin and Li, 2001) and the actual severity of the floods is possibly increasing in time (Birkland et al., 2003; Varis, 2005). Flooding can cause substantial economic and human losses (Kundzewicz, 1999; Varis, 2005), create a major disruption of daily lives of the downstream population (Tran and Shaw, 2007), destroy infrastructure (Morss et al., 2005), and can lead to diseases and other health issues once the flood peak has passed (Ivers and Ryan, 2006; Tran et al., 2008). In the United States, floods are considered to be the costliest natural hazards (Birkland et al., 2003). Due to public concerns about safety and economic losses in developed countries, the traditional response to flooding in a river basin has been to regulate the river through dams or levees (Birkland et al., 2003). Such construction of dams and levees is based on the view that nature can be effectively controlled by humans (van Ogtrop et al., 2005). In addition, river regulation created advantages for river navigation and can regulate the water supply for human consumption and industry.
Floods are the result of runoff generated by heavy rainfall events in which either the rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity, or total rainfall exceeds the storage capacity of the catchment. The key determinants for the generation of floods are therefore 1) the intensity and the amount (or recurrence) of the rainfall event, and 2) catchment characteristics related to landuse and soil properties. In Australia, there is evidence that the rainfall amount per storm is increasing due to changes in the climate (Alexander et al., 2007; Gallant et al., 2007). Globally, the total amount of rainfall is also expected to increase due to climate change. Models predict a 3% increase while a 7% increase was observed based on satellite derived rainfall data over the last 20 years (Lambert et al., 2008; Previdi and Liepert, 2008).
Land use changes impact the storage capacity of the soil through changes in root depths, litter layers and evapotranspiration, and can also change the infiltration capacity, particular as a result of urbanization and related increases in impervious surfaces in a catchment (Dietz and Clausen, 2008; Kundzewicz et al., 2005; Wheater and Evans, 2009). Furthermore, in many countries, land use has been changing rapidly over the last decades with increased urbanization and clearing of forest and range land areas (Dietz and Clausen, 2008; McAlpine et al., 2007; Yin and Li, 2001). As a result, this has led to major changes in the runoff characteristics, which could explain the observed increase in the number and severity of floods (Birkland et al., 2003).
Most of the past research on the management of floods has taken place in Europe and the United States, resulting in an emphasis on humid systems. River regulation in these countries is extensive (Nilsson et al., 2005) as limiting economic losses through flood prevention is seen as important. Most humid river systems are characterized by regular seasonality in the flow and relatively low coefficients of variation (McMahon et al., 1992), which makes river flow relatively predictable and regulation easier. In contrast, semi-arid systems are characterized by irregular flow and high coefficients of variation in flow. Transmission losses can be high making predictions of flood wave propagation difficult. Some rivers in India, Indochina and China are also characterized by very high sediment loads, which means there geomorphology is dynamic (Ludwig and Probst, 1998). In many areas of the tropics, river regulation is further made problematic due to the occurrence of cyclonic weather systems or very strong seasonality and large flows such as in monsoonal systems. This creates additional problems in terms of managing the natural flows in the river using engineering tools. In addition, lack of human and financial capital in some countries in the tropical development zone, makes it difficult to undertake large engineering projects to manage floods (van Ogtrop et al., 2005).
As a result of these difficulties, alternative strategies for managing floods have been suggested over the last two decades (van Ogtrop et al., 2005; Werritty, 2006). There are a range of reasons why the views on flood management have been changing. This paper intends to first review traditional flood management, its advantages and its impact on the river system. Secondly this paper will discuss alternative management of floods and rivers in particular in relation to uncertainty about climate variability now and into the future. Given the amount of work already focusing on humid systems, this paper will emphasize semi-arid systems and monsoonal systems, such as in Australia and parts of India.
A review of flood management approaches Dams, the engineering approach: management of floods using statistics
Managing floods basically deals with managing risk (Krzysztofowicz, 2001; van Ogtrop et al., 2005). Risk is defined as being the combination of damage and occurrence:
(1)
Traditionally most governments have aimed to reduce the occurrence of floods to manage risk and therefore much research has concentrated on the area of statistical hydrology and engineering. Control structures such as dams and levees have been popular as they give a sense of security (Krzysztofowicz, 2001). Apart from reducing the flood occurrence, dams and levees could serve more than one purpose such as improved navigation and water security (Birkland et al., 2003; Morss et al., 2005). The statistical flood management approach focuses on calculating the recurrence of floods of a certain height and basing the policy decisions about flood management on a “calculated risk”.
The recurrence of downstream flood events is based on the statistical analysis of past data (Lave and Balvanyos, 1998). Basically the cumulative probability distribution is calculated and the flow volumes are plotted against the inverse of the frequency, i.e. 1/frequency equals the return period (Figure 1). In this way, the design of a structure, or zoning for flooding can be based on a desired return frequency. For dam construction the return frequency needs to be very high, i.e. a 1 in 1000 year flood was often a standard (Figure 1). This standard related to the maximum flood that a dam would need to be able to withstand without breaking rather than the maximum flood it should be able to store. It related to the design of the spillway. More recently, the concept of probable maximum precipitation (PMP), and the related probable maximum flood (PMF) have been introduced to further improve dam safety (Pessoa and Cluckie, 1990). This is based on the idea that the observed data are often insufficient and therefore the data need to be extended to include the most severe reasonably possible flood (Pessoa and Cluckie, 1990).
There are different ways to estimate PMF (Lave and Balvanyos, 1998), but in the end, other factors such as construction costs will also influence the decision maker. The PMF does not really have a frequency associated with it and depending on the length of the record used, different values can be found. For example, in many cases peak flows cannot be measured due to limitations on the gauging station and this many of the estimates of high flow have high uncertainty (Pessoa and Cluckie, 1990) and further uncertainty is introduced through regionalization (the combination of data within a region to derive the flood curve). Given that the PMF is a relatively recent development, many existing structures needed to be upgraded, which involved significant costs. Thus the choice of PMF method can become an economic decision rather than a scientific one. Again, the PMF design guidelines relate to the design of the spillway and the amount of water the dam would need to be able to spill to safeguard the dam against failure.
In semi-arid areas flooding is often unpredictable and not regular and data series are often very short. The high variation and therefore unpredictability is particularly visible in the presented frequency curve for the Lower Balonne in South East Queensland (Figure 1). The curve is very steep, even though the return frequency is plotted on a log scale. In addition, much of the climate in Australia appears to be influenced by very long climate cycles, possibly as long as 50 years, as can be seen from the lack of regularity in the Lower Balonne timeseries. Good dam design would therefore require very long data series, which can be problematic in many areas of the world including India and Australia.
In essence, dams are only designed to “hold” smaller floods, because, for a dam to be fully effective for flood control, it needs to include a massive over capacity to cope with the one very large flood. Given that a dam is a major infrastructure investment, most dams are not only designed for flood management but are multi-purpose. This means they combine flood management with power generation, water supply for irrigation or drinking water, and recreational purposes. However these other purposes counteract the effective flood prevention role. A water manager focusing on flood prevention would want a dam to be as empty as possible to store the maximum flood, while a manager focusing on irrigation water storage or power generation would like the dam to be as full as possible. As a result the risk of early spilling is increased resulting in floods downstream.
Figure 1 Example frequency curve for monthly river flow for the lower Balonne river at St. George 1921 – 200. The dashed line indicates the 1000 year return frequency.
The key point is that, despite engineering advances and careful construction, dams neither provide full flood prevention (Krzysztofowicz, 2001; Kundzewicz, 1999; Morss et al., 2005) nor are they fail proof (Lave and Balvanyos, 1998) as their design is essentially based on a statistical approximation of possible floods and are never designed to hold all floods. A clear example of this was the recent floods in January 2011 around Brisbane in Queensland, Australia. In this case the major dam (Wivenhoe dam), which was designed to prevent flooding since the previous flood in 1974 was forced to spill rapidly, causing downstream flooding due to the size of the occurring climatic event. In addition, any estimate includes uncertainty. This uncertainty will most probably increase in the future given climate change effects on rainfall and runoff. Overall dams are thus a costly investment in infrastructure which is not risk free. Further investment will always be needed to manage flood damage, the other component of equation 1.
The fact that dams for flood management are never risk free is probably the reason that most dams have been designed with a multi-use purpose, with decreased downstream flooding as only an “additional benefit”. As an example the newly constructed Three Gorges Dam in China lists improved navigation, flood management and hydropower as the three main purposes of dam construction (Wu et al., 2003).
Environmental impacts of river regulation
Figure 2 Example of the effect of a dam on the low flow frequency in a river. Lachlan river at Cowra (NSW) before (1893-1935) and after construction of Wylangala dam (1972 -2007). After McMahon and Finlayson (2003)
The ecological impact of dams on rivers has been extensively documented (e.g. Johnson et al., 1995; Kingsford, 2000; Puckridge et al., 2000). Globally, about half of all major rivers are impacted by dams, this is called “fragmentation of flow” (Nilsson et al., 2005). In the continental U.S. only 42 large rivers (longer than 200 km) are unimpaired (Graf, 1999; Poff and Hart, 2002). The main impact of river regulation is through the change in flow patterns in the river (Graf, 1999; Magilligan and Nislow, 2005). Low flows are particularly affectded (McMahon and Finlayson, 2003) (Figure 2), but other aspects of flows are also impacted. Ecosystems rely on three main aspects of flow: flow regime (the long term nature of flow), flow history (the sequence of low flow and high flow events) and flow pulse (the height of floods) (Sheldon et al., 2000). Regulation of rivers due to dams changes all three these aspects resulting in major changes in ecology of the riverine system (Magilligan and Nislow, 2005; Puckridge et al., 2000). Changes in the flow patterns can result in the separation of the main channel from the floodplain resulting in reduced recruitment in riparian species, changes in downstream food webs and aquatic productivity (Poff and Hart, 2002).
In winter rainfall dominated areas in Australia and the United States, changes in the timing of the water use from the dam and in the river can lead to flow inversion. This is due to the release of water during summer to match crop demand in irrigation and the collection of high flows in the dam in winter (Magilligan and Nislow, 2005; Walker, 1985). Similar problems would occur in monsoon driven systems, where most flow would be normally be expected during the monsoon season and ecosystems will have adapted to such seasonal trends.
In semi-arid environments, most rivers are losing, that is the groundwater tables are well below the water level in the river. Transmission losses from rivers during flooding are the most important contributions of recharge to the local fresh groundwater (Barbier, 2003; Williams et al., 1989). The loss of flooding downstream and change in flows downstream will therefore greatly impact downstream groundwater resources (Barbier, 2003).
The release of water from a dam generally occurs from a so-called “off take” which takes water from the bottom of the impoundment. Water bodies deeper than 8 m, which are not regularly disturbed, develop a strong temperature and dissolved oxygen gradient (Håkanson et al., 2004). Due to these gradients, releases from dams tend to much cooler (up to 10 oC) and more anoxic than the receiving or original river water and this effect can travel downstream over distances of 100 km (Poff and Hart, 2002; Walker, 1985). Such major changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen can severely affect sensitive ecological processes such as fish spawning and aquatic productivity.
Floodplains of many rivers act as filters for nutrients and reducing flooding concentrates nutrients in the river, which are subsequently being deposited in the ocean. In the case of the Mississippi river this has led to toxic algae blooms in the Gulf of Mexico (Sparks, 1995). In Australia, agriculture and river regulation are having similar impacts on the Great Barrier Reef (McCulloch et al., 2003).
Further and more long-term changes will be geomorphologically. Dams not only affect flow volumes and velocities but also act as a catcher for all sediment in the river, as the water slows down and sediment can settle from the water column within the dam. Sediment is important for the maintenance of fertility in natural and agricultural flood plain systems (Mingzhou et al., 2007; Ogden et al., 2007). Conversely, sediment can have negative impacts on the ecology due to anthropogenic contamination with heavy metals or chemicals (Costa et al., 2006; Lecce et al., 2008; Pease et al., 2007). However, sediment is also important for the river to maintain its geomorphological structure. Hence decreases in flow and reduced delivery of sediment load can change the overall channel and floodplain structure (Grubaugh and Anderson, 1989; Ligon et al., 1995) and particularly in semi-arid areas these changes can be rapid (Petts and Gurnell, 2005).
Dam releases and the concentration of flow in the river channel not only lead to a disconnection, but could also increase the risk of flooding. Flooding of floodplains decreases the velocity of the flood wave and decreases the flood peak through attenuation. Concentrating more of the flow in the river channel will therefore increase the risk of flooding downstream (Sparks, 1995). This is further exacerbated by the fact that clay landscapes of the floodplains which are not regularly flooded will subside, thus creating an even greater potential for flooding (Sparks, 1995).
Social and economic impacts of river regulation
People have a difficult relationship with floods. In western countries such as Europe and the United States and Australia, floods are generally treated as damaging and a risk (Kundzewicz et al., 2005). However despite this, many people perceive the risk of actually being affected by a flood as small (Kundzewicz et al., 2005; McPherson and Saarinen, 1977) even if they live on the floodplain (Krzysztofowicz, 2001; McPherson and Saarinen, 1977), or other risks are seen as more pressing (López-Marrero and Yarnal, 2010). Flood mitigation through dam building and river regulation can create further complacency due the misinterpretation of the risk by the population (Krzysztofowicz, 2001; McPherson and Saarinen, 1977).
In contrast, in many other countries, floods are seen as life giving and important sources of moisture for agriculture (Adams, 1999; Adams, 1985). The disruption of flows by a large dam thus has a similar impact on the agricultural productivity downstream as on the riparian ecology (Adams, 1999), which means dam building includes a socio economic disturbance of a similar magnitude (Adams, 1999; Barbier, 2003; Lerer and Scudder, 1999; Varis and Lahtela, 2002). This is particularly the case if 1) local downstream farmers use so-called “recession farming” and thus grow corps on the residual moisture after the flood (Adams, 1999; Adams, 1985; Barbier, 2003), or 2) the downstream farmers rely on the floods to replenish local groundwater tables (Barbier, 2003). In addition, changes in the river ecology can have major impacts on the opportunities of fishermen downstream from dams (Adams, 1999; Adams, 1985; Varis and Lahtela, 2002).
Dams are often built for more than one purpose, flood mitigation being only one of them (Poff and Hart, 2002). This means that releases are also related to such other purposes, either irrigation water supplies or hydropower generation. As a result dam managers have a tendency to store water in the dam at large volumes for future use and therefore releases are sometimes wrongly timed (Adams, 1999) or insufficient for flood plain agriculture (Adams, 1985).
Finally, while floods are seen as a health risk (Ivers and Ryan, 2006), dams can also pose a health risk (Lerer and Scudder, 1999), partly through the loss of access to water for the poorer communities and partly through an increase in vector borne diseases related to the storage of water. As a sad additional detail, even with all the dam construction occurring in the world, basic sanitation and water needs of many communities are still not being met (Gleick, 2003).
Table 1 Summary of downstream impacts of dam construction for flood mitigation
Time frame
Flow
Environmental
Social/economic
Direct
Changes in flood frequency, changes in temperature and turbidity
Wetted area and lack of replenishment of soil moisture or groundwater
Crop failure due to lack of surface and groundwater water
Medium term
Changes in the flow pattern in the river
Changes in vegetation health and floodplain productivity
Changes in population and livelihood
Long term
Temperature, water quality and water quantity changes
Increased flood peaks due to channel changes
Changes in floodplain geomorphology and overall ecology
Complacency, lack of flood risk perception
Alternative approaches of flood management
As alternative approach to minimizing the occurrence of flooding, we can also minimize damage in equation (1). The concept of “living with floods” has therefore been gaining ground (Kundzewicz, 1999; van Ogtrop et al., 2005). Here flood management focuses on co-existing with floods and adapting society and land development to flood levels. This concept is currently guiding flood management in the Netherlands (van Ogtrop et al., 2005). The aim is to reduce the risk of flood damage rather than reducing the flood occurrence, such as through using dams. In addition, living with floods focuses on public awareness of floods and minimizing environmental degradation (van Ogtrop et al., 2005).
Resilience is a concept which has mainly been used in economical and ecological context (Walker et al., 2004). A resilient system is a system that is able to absorb shocks without changing state. In contrast a resistant system is able to withstand shocks up to certain magnitude after which the system changes state. This concept can also be applied to flood management (van Ogtrop et al., 2005), where a system of dams and levees can be defined as a resistant system, while a system which copes with regular flooding can be seen as a resilient system. The difference between the two is again through the focus on the different elements of equation (1).
Suggestions for resilient flood management systems that minimize damage have ranged from evacuating susceptible low lying areas (Lave and Balvanyos, 1998; Varis, 2005), to improved flood forecasting and upstream catchment management (Varis, 2005). But this could be further expanded with innovative ways of living on floodplains (Kundzewicz, 1999; Tran and Shaw, 2007; van Ogtrop et al., 2005). Sustainable flood management can therefore be defined in terms of three actions: 1) modify susceptibility to flood damage 2) modify flood waters 3) modify impact of flood (Kundzewicz, 1999). Smaller dams and levees might still be needed to protect crucial infrastructure (Kundzewicz, 1999).
But systems can also go backwards. In a study in Vietnam it was found that the traditional system was more resilient than the current system due to changes in the socioeconomics of the region (Tran et al., 2008). In particular, social cohesion and bonding was very important in terms of reducing the impact of flooding on the local community (Tran et al., 2008). Deforestation in the upper catchment due to export demands and a decline in traditional systems of environmental management resulted in an increase of both flood risk and flood damage (Tran and Shaw, 2007).
For Australian semi-arid catchments (inland rather than coastal) damage is generally not a major concern as the population densities are low. In fact, floods are generally welcomed as life giving. Problems only occur around urban centres where economic losses tend to be higher, such as recently in Brisbane. A further example of problems related to human encroachment on the river is related to the recent floods around Rockhampton, Queensland. Here most of the damage was related to an urban area known as “the swamp”. This neighbourhood was locally known as the swamp because it was built on a low lying area adjacent to the river and prone to flooding.
In contrast, some of the irrigated systems in south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales in Australia are dependent on flood water to supplement the uncertain rainfall, but this has, similarly to the construction of dams a major impact on the flood frequency and magnitude (Kingsford, 2000). A system of adaptive flood management that protect small urban centers, but allows widespread flooding elsewhere could easily be implemented. However this would require changes to planning regulations.
Future flood management under increased climate variability
The predicted changes to global climate (IPCC, 2007) will throw up a range of new challenges for flood management. Resilient alternatives in flood management will therefore have to include the predicted effects of climate change. Future climate change effects are predicted to increase global rainfall with the main increases probably occurring in the mid latitude areas (Dore, 2005; Huntington, 2006; Kundzewicz et al., 2005; Lambert et al., 2008; Previdi and Liepert, 2008). More semi-arid areas, such as Australia will probably see increases in the time between rainfall events, while the amounts per event could also slightly rise (CSIRO, 2007; Pitman and Perkins, 2008). In terms of flood management, it means that if the storage capacity in the dams is assumed to stay constant, this will lead to increased overflows from the dams. From a statistical design point of view, the PMF will shift up. This will require further (costly) upgrading of existing structures to reduce the risk of dam failure, as this risk would increase, a trend which might be already evident in the current data (Lave and Balvanyos, 1998).
Climate change and land use change might go hand in hand. Changes in rainfall patterns and temperature would affect vegetation survival and cropping patterns. Increased pressure on forest resources and limited arable land decreases the amount of forest cover in the upper catchments and could increase populations in flood prone areas. It is not clear which might go faster, climate change or land use change, particular in areas with high population pressures, such as South East Asia and India. This is a smaller concern in the less densely populated areas in Australia, where in fact major reforestation is needed, due to increased salinity risks and past land clearing (McAlpine et al., 2007; Pannell and Ewing, 2006).
For Australia, there are some further interesting considerations. Currently large storage dams are used to manage floods and irrigation waters in many of the rivers in the Murray Darling Basin. However, due to the large variability of the climate in Australia, surface water resources are often uncertain and evaporation losses from irrigation storage basins and dams can be high. Reliable groundwater resources would be a preferred option, but there are limitations in pumping capacity and sustainable yield of good quality groundwater. Future climate predictions for Australia indicate an increase in the variability of rainfall affecting both the recurrence of floods and drought periods. Increased recharge into groundwater through increased opportunity of flooding would allow increased use of groundwater for irrigation, i.e. similar to the objectives of rainwater harvesting in India. While the overall amount of water available for irrigation might decrease, the reliability would increase. In terms of dam management, this would either require removal of dams or an increase of so-called “translucent flows” (inflows which are immediately released). Clearly, construction of new dams is not a good choice.
In many countries, flood plain areas are crowded by population due to the high fertility of the areas, or preferences for living “on the water”. For example, during the recent floods in January 2001 in Brisbane in Queensland, the hardest hit suburbs were quite wealthy where people had paid premiums for living close to the river. Moreover in areas with less developed infrastructure, or less developed economies, where people choose to live in flood plain areas because of farming opportunities, this creates additional problems in terms of avoiding flood damage.
As an alternative to high levels of government investment, public participation could be used in finding resilient flood management solutions. Public participation in flood management has two advantages. The first is that solutions can be found which are flexible and low cost. The second is that through participation there is an increased awareness of the flood risk which leads to better preparedness and a decrease in the loss of lives in future floods. As an example, in the earlier mentioned study in Vietnam, it was noted that limited public participation meant that the linkage between environmental management (i.e. land use and land degradation) and flood hazard were not clear (Tran and Shaw, 2007). In addition, social cohesion and bonding were very important in disaster management, such as flooding (Tran et al., 2008). In areas of rapid economic growth, public participation is additionally important to increase awareness of the risk of building and development in flood prone areas (Tran et al., 2008).
In terms of resilience, climate change can deliver some of the shocks which might test the system. A system based on flood management using a dam would have a higher risk of failure and thus a smaller resistance and precariousness than a system based on a “living with floods” concept, or any other system which includes high levels of public participation and a focus on damage minimization (Gersonius et al., 2010; Walker et al., 2004). Under future climatic change it will be even more difficult to minimize the occurrence of floods than to minimize damage from floods.
Summary and Conclusions
In summary, the review in this paper indicates that there are many issues related to management of floods using dam construction (Table 1). Given the projected changes in climate, flood management using dams is not a real viable alternative for the future, because related costs and downstream impacts are significant. Given the increased pressures on government monies and the range of other priorities, alternatives should be considered. An assumption has been that the proposed dam would primarily be constructed for flood mitigation and not for other purposes (such as hydropower, town water supply and irrigation). However, in this paper, it is also indicted that some of these purposes could also be met with other means (using groundwater). Even if there are multiple uses for a proposed dam, arguments for and against construction can be given, but the analysis is more complex.
Flood management using dams is costly, greatly disrupts the environment and is not fail safe. The methods for assessing dam safety are often based on extrapolation of data and include large levels of uncertainty. This is particularly exacerbated in areas of low data density or high variability such as India and Australia. Alternative flood management strategies, such as “living with floods” have opportunities to increase public awareness of flood danger and have less environmental impact. In the light of future changes in climate, increased population and increased pressures on fertile flood plain soils, alternative flood management strategies become even more attractive. In addition, in Australia, increased flooding would allow increased recharge into valuable groundwater resources.
Director, Research IASE Deemed University
Head, Department of value Education, IASE Deemed University
Mother earth is considered one of the most beautiful and harmonious planets in the Universe. Earth may be the only planet in our galaxy that has enough water and
environment for the further evolution of life, that is plant, animal and human order. Naturally, life on earth is in co-existential harmony1. Unfortunately, global human society is suffering from various prob- lems due to the ignorance of this harmony. Nature cares, loves and supports the human order and recip- rocally, humanity must take care of its only beautiful planet. We must follow the law of mutual fulfilment. It is necessary for the survival of humanity.
Unfortunately, directionless and purposeless techno-scientific development damages the natu- ral-ecological and environmental harmony, and cre- ates ecological and environmental imbalances.2 The climate of the world is changing very fast. Catas- trophes are taking place almost every day, and unknown hazardous diseases are surfacing every- where. The only hope is that every person is capable of influencing the world in some way and that this influence would be positive. We can imagine the seri- ousness of the problem today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. Taken together, the ecological footprint of all nations in the year 2001 is almost 20% bigger than the ecological capac- ity of the Earth. “Moderate UN scenarios suggest that if current population and consumption trends continue, by the mid 2030s we will need the equiva- lent of two Earths to support us. And of course, we only have one” .3 A poll survey report published in Washington Post ‘Mass Extinction Underway, Majority of Biologists Say’ “Amajority of the nation’s biologists are convinced that a mass extinction of plants and animals is underway that poses a major threat to humans in the next century. The rapid disappearance of species was ranked as one of the planet’s gravest environmental worries, surpassing pollution, global warming and the thinning of the ozone layer.” 4So we see, at this rate the human race could one day perish if we don’t look after our planet.
However, human centric philosophy ‘Mad- hayatha Darshan Sahastitvavad’5 elucidates Coex- istence, that is the existential/natural order among the physical-material world, plant/pranic and animal world. The relationships among the material, pranic (cells) /plants and animal orders, are mutually ful- filling and mutually enriching and this process is cyclic (avartansheel) in nature. Right understanding between Nature and Humanity will be necessary to fulfil the relationship with all these orders. A.Nagraj (2008) further argues that the whole of ‘existence is in the form of co-existence’6, as units submerged in space. Each unit is self-organized within itself (Niyam, niyantran, santulan sahit nishchit aacha- ran ke sath) and fulfils its harmonious relationship with all other units/order, except the human order. The ultimate desire of human beings is also to live in the harmony with rest of the nature. It means that noone has to create the harmony. It is already available. It exists in the form of Co-existential Harmony. One only needs to understand existence and align oneself with it. It is only by understanding these processes in nature, human beings can sur- vive and flourish. All the three orders are fulfilling their relationship with human beings. Subsequently human beings must organize their life style to fulfil the other three orders (figure 1).
Figure 01
Dr. Sandeep Pandey says “Madhyastha Darshan iden- tifies two distinct and independent components in a human being – the material body and the consciousness (‘jeevan’ or ‘chaitanya’). Spiritualism or sciences do not recognize their independent existence. While spiritualism is God-centered and mystical in nature, and science is matter-centred and uncertain in nature, but Madhyastha Darshan is human- centred and deterministic in nature. Since spiritualism and science have failed to universally satisfy the quest for knowl- edge of human beings in a manner, which could result in a just human order, there was a need to look beyond these two major streams of thinking which have guided human beings so far on earth.” 7
Socio-political, economic and personal choices must be based on the laws of physics (natural laws) in order to be in harmony with nature including human life. This basic principle was recognized by Karl-Henrik. Heargues (in ‘Educating a Nation: the Natural Step’) that “It also happens that nearly all of our natural resources have been created by cells. Over billions of years, a toxic stew of inorganic compounds has been transformed by cells into mineral deposits, forests, fish, soil, breathable air and water – the very foundation of our economy and of our healthy existence. With sunlight as the sole energy supply, those natural resources have been created in growing, self-sustaining cycles – the “waste” from one species providing nutrition for another (i.e. mutual ful- fillment). The only processes that we can rely on indefi- nitely are cyclical; all linear processes must eventually come to an end. For roughly the past hundred years, humans have been disrupting the cyclical processes of nature at an accelerating pace. All human societies are, in varying degrees, now processing natural resources in a linear direction.”8
Problems Facing Global Society
As we know that “Every year, six million children die from malnutrition before their fifth birthday. Every 3.6 seconds, about the time it’ll take you to read this sentence, another human being has died of starvation. five million people die from water borne illness every year. Almost 40 percent of the world’s population does not have basic sanitation and over one billion people still use unsafe sources of drink- ing water. HIv/AIDS takes the lives of 6,000 people every single day, as 8,200 more are infected with it. Every thirty seconds, another African child dies of malaria, which accounts for the deaths of more than one million children a year. A woman in sub-Saharan Africa has a 1 in 16 chance of dying in childbirth. Her North American counterpart has a 1 in 3,700 risk. More than 40 percent of African women do not have access to basic education, although it’s proven that if a girl is educated for six years or more, as an adult her prenatal care, postnatal care, and childbirth sur- vival rates will dramatically and constantly improve. Educated women are more likely to vaccinate their children. Every minute, a woman somewhere dies in pregnancy or childbirth. That’s 1,400 women every single day and 529,000 women each year dying from pregnancy-related causes. About five women have already died as you read this.” 1
A human monoculture without the support of other species is not viable. Anthropogenic, human caused mass extinction of species is a threat to human survival17. The Millennium Ecosystem Assess- ment project reports on the loss of species in the last 30 years of the 20th century. 18Modern life-style and trends of socio-politico-economic systems designed by materialistic ideologies are further aggravating the social & environmental problems.
In view of addressing environmental problems, the World bank economist Jean-francois Rischard 9(2002) seriously argues that the next 20 years will be of critical importance to our planet. The resolu- tion of global problems over the next decade will determine the fate of our planet for future genera- tions. He points out that the twenty most pressing issues facing the global community, can be classified in three groups, 1. Issues involving the global commu- nity, i.e. global warming, biodiversity and ecosystem losses, fisheries depletion, deforestation, water defi- cits, maritime safety and pollution, 2. Issues requiring global commitments, that is massive steps in the fight against poverty, peacekeeping, conflict prevention, combating terrorism, education for all, global infec- tious diseases, digital divide, natural disaster preven- tion and mitigation and, 3. Issues needing a global regulatory approach, that is reinventing taxation for the twenty-first century, biotechnology rules, global financial architecture, illegal drugs, trade, invest- ment, and competition rules, intellectual property rights, e-commerce rules, international labor and migration.
All this demands a drastic paradigm shift in the materialistic modern education orientation, from conflict centric to harmony centric education. And the priority, approaches and mainstream develop- ment strategies of the nation states must be on the basis of human centric existential harmony, that is wisdom based sustainable and cyclic development and a balance between production and the con- sumption of natural resources. The tendency of the consumerist global market to exploit the natural resources for profit alone for generating illusionary paper money at nature’s cost forms the core of the problem.
On the other hand, Russian Philosopher Alexan- der Chumakov believes that “At the dawn of global civil society, the test for humanity is to achieve unity while preserving cultural differences as well as the distinctiveness of nations and peoples. Such unity can be reached only by recognizing human values, especially human rights. However, these rights must be strictly determined and more than mere obliga- tions. Hence, the most important task for philosophy is to develop foundations and principles for a world society and to formulate a global consciousness and a humanistic worldview that adequately reflects the realities of our epoch. Our action must increasingly be based on an acknowledgment of global values.” 10
As suggested by most of the secular humanists solutions of global problems include: upholding and strengthening international law, application of the rule of law in combating terrorism, promoting secular values, laws and constitutions worldwide, asserting the rights of children to be free of religious indoctrination, rational solutions to global problems based on international cooperation, strengthening of the ‘Kyoto Agreement’ to provide an international carbon tax and the voice against unilateral pre-emp- tive military action, the policy of any country that seeks to promote a sectarian religious agenda, poli- cies based on the presumption of religious superior- ity, theocracies of any kind, be they Judaic, Christian or Islamic.
To achieve this, it requires a shift in our orienta- tion from discriminatory/sectarianism (race, class, caste, religion, and gender ) to a human centric mind- set, which can be achieved through co-existential harmony centric global and universal educational content for all. This will create a conducive envi- ronment for common humane civil code, universal- global laws and legislations (a common constitution for all humanity) to resolve the disastrous social and environmental problems plaguing our planet.
Today’s global economic-political and educa- tional policies and activities are influencing the global climate system. various research data indicate that the earth’s surface temperature is rising. This increase can be attributed and caused by an increase in greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. It is becoming apparent that these climatic changes are negatively affecting the physical and biological sys- tems worldwide. Charles H. Southwick 11 , a well known ecologist, argues about how we, as humans, affect global ecosystems and how these changes impact our health, behavior, economics and politics.
Winfried K. Rudloff, of governors State Univer- sity suggests, “On one hand, globalization in science and education is rapidly taking place on account of the World Wide Web and the Internet. On the other hand, such high technology-based education is still in its infancy and mostly concerned with run-of- the-mill subjects that lack focus on urgent global problems. Specifically, most urgent problems such as resource depletion, environmental pollution, over- population, deforestation, the greenhouse effect, unchecked militarism, and rampant nuclear pro- liferation are studied to provide our students with a better understanding of the complexity of these interrelated issues. They should learn how to analyze problems of global importance and find creative solu- tions. After all, they are the generation of the future which they have to shape through knowledge and state-of-the-arts skills.”12
The big question is what is the underlining cause of such economical and political behavior? Human centric philosophy of coexistence, that is ‘Madhayatha Darshan Sahastitvavad’, explains that, consumerist social behav- ior, profit centric economies, sex-lust centric psychologi- cal content of media, and uncertainty, disorder, chaos and conflict based ideologies and theories of modern education content comprise the root of this problematic behavior.
lester brown argues that sometimes the scien- tific predictions are uncertain due to the complexity of an issue, such as the present state of the world. Human civilization is endangered by anthropogenic environmental degradation, and by destructive social and individual conflicts. Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans.13
A. Nagraj proposes that each existential phe- nomenon is self organized, the law of nature is constant, stable and that the evolutionary process in nature is definite. Hence the current problems faced by humanity can not only be predicted but also resolved.
Homer-Dixon states that “Environmental scien- tists have been saying for some time that the global economy is being slowly undermined by environ- mental trends of human origin, including shrinking forests, expanding deserts, falling water tables, erod- ing soils, collapsing fisheries, rising temperatures, melting ice, rising seas, and increasingly destructive storms” 14.
The links between environmental change and acute conflict will help us to evaluate our theory of environ- mental change and its contribution to conflict. Scarcity of resources from the environment (clean air, water, food, energy, land etc.) leads to violent conflicts within nations, and to war and terrorism between nations.15 Neo-Malthusianism have argued that global environ- mental change leads to scarcities of resources that could lead to societal collapse. Somalia, Rwanda, and Haiti serve as poster children for such arguments. 16They also demonstrate how violent conflicts emerge indirectly from resource scarcity. Already today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. This situation arises when there is a lack of understanding of co-exis- tence, mutually fulfilling and mutually enriching cyclic process (avartansheel) in nature and instead a mutually unfulfilling and disorderly relationship of humans with the rest of the nature. Moreover the production model especially industrial, adopted by modern humans, has disturbed the law of natural cyclicity which results in ecological imbalance.
In view of the philosophy of co-existential har- mony, the human intervention through science and technology into the existential order (such as atom, cells, and genes) can lead to massive destruc- tion and uncertain behavior of nature. This can eventually lead to the collapse of civilization. The major factor in this outcome will be the activities propelled by nuclear fission and fusion. The advent of nuclear weapons might lead to mutually assured destruction, and therefore the resolution of con- flicts by the rule of international law has become a necessity. Well known scientist Carl Sagan, in his widely acclaimed television series “The Nuclear Winter” (1983), explored the unforeseen and devas- tating physical and chemical effects of even a small- scale nuclear war on the earth’s biosphere and life on earth. War and terrorism within and between nations is a critical global issue. An all-out nuclear war causing a nuclear winter would be a catastro- phe for humankind; it would not only create social chaos, but also ruin the life-supporting ecosystem beyond repair 18. It is now almost 40 years since the invention of nuclear weapons. We have not yet experienced a global thermonuclear war, although on more than one occasion we have come tremendously close. I do not think our luck can hold forever. Men and machines are fallible, as recent events remind us. fools and madmen do exist, and sometimes rise to power. Concentrating always on the near future, we have ignored the long-term consequences of our actions. We have placed our civilization and our spe- cies in jeopardy.
Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans. lester brown says in ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble.’ “Our global civilization today is on an eco- nomic path that is environmentally unsustainable, a path that is leading us toward economic decline and eventual collapse.” 19
The use of fossil fuels has advanced technology- based civilization to unprecedented destruction levels, because the extraction of fossils fuels cre- ates tectonic disturbances and also releases CO2, which creates the atmospheric imbalance leading to global warming. However today, we begin to realize the consequences of our energy choices may lead to climate change, and the demise of a fossil fuel based civilization. So the most appropriate alter- native for our energy source should be renewable energy. long term systemic thinking and appropri- ate action at the global and local levels are urgently needed for achieving sustainability and civility in the world community. Sustainability is the overarching issue. It rests on three pillars: ecological, societal, and personal integrity.
billions of human beings on the Earth are unhappy due to their inability to satisfy their basic personal needs (physiological needs, safety and secu- rity needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs) as defined by A. Maslow.20 Maslow has been a very inspirational figure in personality theories. In the 1960’s in particular, people were tired of the reduc- tionist, mechanistic messages of the behaviorists and physiological psychologists. They were look- ing for meaning and purpose in their lives, even a higher, more mystical meaning. Maslow was one of the pioneers in that movement to bring the human being back into psychology and the person back into personality!
At approximately the same time, another move- ment was getting underway, one inspired by some of the very things that turned Maslow off: computers and information processing, as well as very ratio- nalistic theories such as Piaget’s cognitive develop- ment theory and Noam Chomsky’s linguistics. but the philosophy of co-existential harmony explains two types of human needs: material needs (food, clothing, shelter, and material means) for the body, which is fulfilled through agriculture and industrial production, and non-material needs for conscious- ness (trust, respect, love, and understanding),21 which can be fulfilled only by understanding Niyam, Niyantran, Santulan in the natural order and Nyay, Dharma (order), and Satya in the relationship.
In fact, every human wants to live with perennial happiness and prosperity. Almost all human efforts and time are spent in order to ensure physical (mate- rial) comfort with the inherent presumption that comforts will lead to happiness. If we look into this presumption, what appears is that in the case of lack of comfort one feels deprived. but it is well known that having enough comforts cannot ensure happi- ness. Thus it becomes essential to address the need of happiness and comfort separately. Consequently, one must understand happiness, comfort and the difference between these two needs. Thus perennial happiness can be achieved by living in synchrony with co-existence.
The role of the global civil society
Since early in Indian civilization, there has been an earnest desire for realizing Vasudhev Kutambakam (a single global family). In the modern sense this is a global civil society and “global citizenship”, which are widely prevalent in contemporary intellectual discourses. The Chief Editor of the International Journal of Sociology françois Houtart says “the debate on the limits, possibilities and opportunities facing civil society today is an open one. The issue was discussed during the World Social forum in January in Porto Alegre, brazil, which brought together spokespeo- ple and representatives of civil society around the world.”
The concept of civil society is very fashionable at the moment. It is so widely accepted as to allow all kinds of interpretations, while at the same time covering all kinds of ambivalences.
When the World bank talks of civil society, it is referring to a completely different reality than the one expressed by the Thai Poor People’s forum or the brazilian Movement of landless Peasants. It is necessary to analyze this term ‘civil society’ away from the slogans. Civil society is the arena for social struggles and thus for defining collective challenges, but before reflecting on how to build it we should first take a close look at the different ways the con- cept is currently interpreted. Global civil society represents the potential of transnational civil society to enhance democracy in global governance. Numerous works are devoted to the role of new ideas, norms, and discourse of transnational advocacy networks 22,23,24.
The development of transnational networks may help to create new identities and awareness of global society that would improve the current discriminatory codes and practices based on established political boundaries. Richard Price25 implies that research into transna- tional civil society tends to overemphasize the effect of particular campaigns that aspire to liberal and progressive moral change and to downplay the ‘bad’ or failed campaigns. In a similar vein, Chris brown suggests that the pitfall of the global civil society scholarship is to assume that transnational advocacy networks would provide a panacea for world ills and represent the universal values of the human race.
Then, what factors contribute to the achieve- ment of global civil society, lest we fall for versions of cosmopolitan idealism? Those who turn to history, as well as theory, suggest that the birth of global civil society could occur only in the further development and maturation of civil society. John Keane26 argues that ‘so-called domestic civil societies and the emerg- ing global civil society are normally linked together in complex, cross-border patterns of looped and re-looped circuitry’. The normative divide between domestic and global civil societies is nationalism, a collective sense of unity based on the cultural tra- dition and the recognized existence of a nation in a particular region. However, according to Edward Shills27, civil society is sustained by national collec- tive self-consciousness (Akhand Samaj/One human society), because its normative basis is a collective willingness to accept the legitimacy of the law and authority, which enhances plurality of interests and ideals. Thus, nationalism is also an important vehicle for global civil society.
Philosopher A. Nagraj propounded Madhyas- tha Darshan, which is basically a human centric phi- losophy. At its core is the co-existentialism. Nagraj has elucidated on the harmony and balance in the humane conduct as well as in natural phenomenon. He has proposed some guidelines (human conducts) for humanity that is known as Manviya Samvidhan (human constitution). Keeping the human being as the focus, based on human mental faculties, he has presented a number of sutras that are of very high value for the establishment of a universal human order. These sutras enlighten the path to the solu- tions of present day problems. It guides humanity towards achieving satisfied, prosperous, fearless and co existential life. 28
If we have to identify the role of global civil soci- ety for solving human problem, first of all it is imper- ative to identify and explore the definite human conduct, that is to live Niyam, Niyantran, Santulan with natural order and Nyay, Dharma (order), Satya with human society. The philosophy of Madhyastha Darshan explains the definite and constant conduct of human beings. This conduct could be the founda- tion of a global human citizen code and constitution by which we can explore the universal human order. This is possible through the reorientation ofcontent in education towards behavioral sociology, cyclic eco- nomics, humanization of science and technology, consciousness centered psychology, human centric economic and social system and the human constitu- tion, which could potentially solve problems faced by humans.
REFERENCES:
1. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)
2. Millennium goals – global Problems ~ global Solutions forum, www.laroche.edu/global/goals.htm
3. global footprint http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=global_footprint
4. Washington Post, Tuesday, April 21, 1998, “Mass Extinction Underway, Majority of biologists Say”
5. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)
6. A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan vidya Prakashan (1998)
9. Jean-francois Rischard, Twenty global Issues, Twenty years to Solve Them (2002)
10. Alexander Chumakov, Human values: The Key to Solving global Problems (Abstract), The Proceedings of the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy (1998), Alan M. Olson (Editor)
11. Charles H. Southwick, global Ecology In Human Perspective, Oxford University Press, 1996
12. Winfried K. Rudloff, global Issues and Integrative Education, Published in “Adv. In Educ., vol III”, pp. 1-6, Ed. george lasker, IIAS Publication, Windsor, Canada 2000
13. lester brown, Plan b 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble http://www.earth-policy.org/books/Pb2/
14. Thomas Homer-Dixon, ‘On The Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict’. http://www.library.utoronto. ca/pcs/thresh/thresh3.htm#top
15. Thomas Homer-Dixon, ‘On The Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict’. http://www.library.utoronto. ca/pcs/thresh/thresh3.htm#top
16. gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2003. ‘Environmental Conflict: Neomalthusians vs. Cornucopians’, in Hans günter brauch, ed., Security and the Environment in the Mediterranean: Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts. berlin: Springer (477–485).
17. global footprint http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=global_footprint
18. Charles H. Southwick, global Ecology In Human Perspective, Oxford University Press, 1996
19. lester brown, Plan b 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble http://www.earth-policy.org/books/Pb2/
21. A. Nagraj, vavharvadi Samajshastra, Jeevanvidya Prakshan Amarkantak, (1999)
22. Keck, Margaret and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists beyond borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, Ny, and london: Cornell University Press.
23. Higgott, Richard, geoffrey Underhill, and Andreas bieler. 2000. Non-State Actors and Authority in the global System. london: Routledge.
24. O’brien, Robert, Anne Marie goetz, Jan Aart Scholte, and Marc Williams. 2000. Contesting global governance: Multilateral and global Social Movements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25. Price, Richard. 2003. ‘Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics.’ World Politics 55 (July):
26. Keane, John. 2001. ‘global Civil Society?’ In global Civil Society 2001, eds. Helmut Anheier, Marlies glasius, and Mary Kaldor. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 23–47.
27. Shils, Edward. 1995. ‘Nation, Nationality, Nationalism and Civil Society.’ Nations and Nationalism 1(1): 93–118. 28. A Nag raj, A.Nagraj, Manviya Samvidhan, Jeevanvidya Prakshan Amarkantak, (2008)
Preface
The ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ which was set up under the Planning Commission to develop a strategy for India’s 12th Five Year Plan has released its interim report recently. While this interim report echoes the earlier govt. stand that India is one of the lowest GHG emitters in world, and hence has a right not to be forced with carbon emission cap, it also clearly recognizes that India is highly vulnerable to climate change, and hence has a strong interest in minimizing the risk of climate change. It refers to India’s announcement to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25 % over 2005 level by 2020 through pursuit of proactive policies. This interim report has provided a menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy.
The main sectors examined in this report are power, transport, industry, building and forestry. It is very relevant to note this report indicates that it is feasible to exceed the target of bringing down the emissions intensity of its GDP by 10 -13 % by 2020 through aggressive efforts. In view of the huge deleterious impacts to vulnerable section and environment of high GDP growth strategy of the successive governments, and the looming crises associated with the inevitable climate change, the civil society has a special interest in effectively participating in exploring various options available to our society to reduce the total GHG emissions. In this regard an objective review of the menu of options recommended by this expert group to reduce GHG emission intensity becomes essential.
Salient features – towards unsustainable growth rate
A major concern with the approach of this expert group is that it starts with the base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals. It appears that the social, economic and environmental impacts on the vulnerable sections of our society associated with a sustained GDP growth of 8 – 9 % over the next 20 years were never a matter of concern to this planning group. Such a high growth rate will mean the manufacture of products and provision of services at an unprecedented pace leading to: setting up of more factories/manufacturing facilities; consumption of large quantities of raw materials; unsustainably increasing demand for natural resources such as water, minerals, timber etc.; acute pressure on the govt. to divert agricultural/forest lands for other purposes; huge demand for energy; clamor for more of airports, air lines, hotels, shopping malls, private vehicles, express highways etc. Vast increase in each of these activities, while increasing the total GHG emissions, will also reduce the ability of natural carbon sinks such as forests to absorb GHG emissions.
The net effect associated with high GDP growth target will be that the total GHG emissions will increase by considerable margin, even if reduced emissions intensity of country’s GDP is feasible. The desirability of this scenario to our society needs to be questioned in the context that the increase in total GHG emissions will be closely associated with the increased pollution of air, land and water; and the increased denial of access to natural resources to the vulnerable sections of the society. Reduced area and density of forests, dammed rivers, polluted air, forced displacements which will all be the consequences of a frenetic 9% GDP growth are bound to impact the vulnerable sections of our society. Since the vulnerable sections of the society are also the most impacted lot due to climate change, the civil society has a crucial role to ensure that their legitimate interests are protected adequately.
A quick look at the possible impact of 9% sustained growth on the critical sectors of the Indian economy can reveal a disturbing trend. The transport sector will demand much higher consumption of energy such as diesel, petroleum and LNG. These products which already have about 75% import content are projected to reach 85-90% soon with disastrous consequences on energy security. The pollution loading of vastly increased consumption of petroleum products, which has given rise to concerns in urban areas already, is likely to reach extremely unhealthy levels. Along with increased GHG emissions and much higher levels of suspended particulate matter, the pressure on the transportation infrastructure can become unmanageable. Increased use of private passenger vehicles, which is already a huge concern, will escalate to choke our roads and lungs.
Industrial activities, as a consequence of 9% sustained growth, will put unbearable demand on land, fresh water, energy and other raw materials. Such a demand on land (such as in SEZs, coastal industrial corridors, IT&BT parks etc.) have already given rise to a lot of concerns to social scientists, and already has witnessed social upheavals as in Singur, West Bengal. The industrial sector, which is already responsible for 22% of total GHG emissions, will contribute hugely to the increase in total GHG emissions of the country. Similarly, 9% GDP growth will lead to steep increase in demand for buildings in the form of factories, transportation infrastructure, offices, hotels, etc. which in turn will put huge demand for construction materials and energy. In this scenario can the increase in GHG emissions be far behind?
The most telling impact of frenetic economic growth of 9% over 20 years will be on forests, rivers and other natural resources. As against National Forest Policy target of 33% of forests & tree cover, the country has less than 20% of the same, which are considered to be the most important sinks of GHG emissions. The demand for additional lands and minerals for the increased activities in all the above mentioned sectors will further reduce the forest & tree cover, which in turn will severely impact the availability of fresh water and on the nature’s ability to absorption GHGs. The impact of vastly reduced forest & tree cover on human health and on all aspects of our society requires no further elaboration. Whereas the increased economic activities associated with 9% growth will certainly result in vastly increased GHG emissions, the same will reduce the ability of forest & tree cover to absorb GHG emissions from the atmosphere. In this scenario it is anybody’s guess as to how the country’s total GHG emissions can be reduced to an acceptable level.
The report seems to mimic the tall claims made under the Green India Mission (GIM). The objective of GIM is to double the area to be taken up for afforestation and eco-restoration in India in the next 10 years at a gigantic investment of about 40,000 Crores. While the frenetic pace of economic development associated with 9% GDP growth rate will lead to considerable reduction in the existing natural forests of high ecological value, GIM may increase the tree over mostly with mono-culture species of much reduced ecological value. Such a situation will not only increase the GHG emission due to deforestation, but will also drastically reduce the ability of our forests to absorb GHG emissions. This anomaly has not been considered at all in the report.
Of various sectors of our economy energy sector has the highest contribution of emissions with 58% of CO2 equivalent in year 2007, as per this report. Within the energy sector the largest chunk of emissions was from electricity generation amounting to 65% of CO2 equivalent in that sector.
The report indicates that the compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of emissions trend between 1994 and 2007 for electricity was one of the highest with 5.6% along with cement and waste. The report says: “Growth in these sectors can be attributed to tremendous increase in capacity of production during 1994 to 2007. Further, the emission intensity as expressed in grams of CO2 -eq per Rs. of GDP has fallen from 66.8 in 1994 to 56.21 in 2007, indicating the impact of government policies that encourage energy efficiency in various sectors of the economy”. In view of the huge CO2 – eq emission contribution of electricity to the total GHG emissions in the country, a cursory look at what the report recommends for this sector becomes important.
As in integrated energy policy (IEP), this Planning Commission report assumes that the country should have 8 – 9% GDP growth, because of which it projects gross electricity generation requirement of about 2,360 Billion kWH in 2020; as compared to 813 Billion kWH in 2007-08 (about 3 times increase). The report also indicates that aggressive efforts in bringing energy efficiency to domestic and commercial appliances can save about 150 Billion kWH by 2020. Whereas it has assumed that the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets though efficiency improvement and demand side management as 10 Billion kWH, the national level statistics on inefficiency of agricultural pump-sets indicates that the losses are about 10% of the total electrical energy consumption. Hence, if we consider net generation requirement of 2,210 Billion kWH in 2020, the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets can be as high as 50 Billion kWH if can reduce the losses even by 25%, which is technically feasible. Similarly, the report indicates that the savings feasible from efficiency improvement measures in industries as about 60 Billion kWH.
Despite all the suggested measures the GHG emissions within power sector is expected to increase from 598 million tons of CO2 – eq emissions in 2007 to about 1,620 million tons of CO2 equivalents in 2020 for the 9 percent GDP growth scenario; an increase of 2.7 times. Even with all the suggested aggressive efforts in the report the total installed power generating capacity is projected to increase to about 363,000 MW by 2020 as compared to the total capacity of about 160,000 MW in 2007; an increase of about 2.3 times.
Shortcomings of the report
The report assumes coal power to be the least cost option, and that the coal power capacity needs to be increased to 230, 000 MW from the present level of about 80,000 MW. It states: “… This will require an annual coal supply of at least 1,000 million tons, two and a half times the present. Domestic mining will have to increase considerably otherwise imports will have to meet a large fraction of coal demand.” To increase the domestic mining large tracts of thick forests have to be destroyed. The report while eulogizing how much GHG emission saving can be achieved by steps mentioned in the report, it completely ignores how much GHG absorption potential will be lost by destroying forests.
The projected increase in the installed power generation capacity poses almost insurmountable logistical problems. “… In other words, it translates to adding about 20,000 MW of new generation capacity per annum. As against this, in the recent years, India has added only about 10,000 MW per annum…”. But this issue has not been dealt effectively, and how the gap can be bridged. The embedded GHG emissions in increasing the installed power capacity by about 150,000 MW are not even mentioned.
As in the integrated energy policy, the importance given to renewable energy sources is woefully inadequate. The report states: “Solar installed capacity if pursued with seriousness could grow to 20,000 MW by 2020. It is one of the critical technology options for India’s long term energy security. Several parts of India are endowed with good solar radiation and deploying solar even on 1 percent of the land area could result in over 500,000 MW of solar power.” With adequate encouragement given to feed-in-tariff mechanism for roof top mounted solar PV systems, for which there has been strong advocacy for a number of years, many times more than the 20,000 MW solar capacity can be realized; but sadly the required level of commitment is lacking.
As in the integrated energy policy, this report too has failed to put adequate emphasis on DSM measures, which with effective strategies can bring down the power capacity projection to a level much below 363,000 MW by 2020. Report says : “It is clear that in the absence of implementing DSM measures, India will continue to face power shortage in 2020, which itself could place an energy constraint on growth.”
A major problem for the Indian economy, as well as its environment, will be the unchecked growth of urban areas. The report states: “..The urban populations are predicted to rise to 550 million by 2030 or 42.0 percent of the total population….. This urban growth, combined with rapid growth in the economy, has resulted in putting enormous pressure on housing requirements, urban infrastructure and other services.” No measures have been contemplated to limit the growth of urban areas.
Way forward to ensure sustainable development of our masses:
The base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals will lead to very many intractable problems for the society from social and environmental perspectives. Such a high growth rate has not been found necessary even in developed economies, where even at the highest growth period they are reported to have registered only 4-6 % growth. The so called “trickle down” benefits to vulnerable sections of our society through 8-9 % growth will be negligible as compared to the all round benefits associated with inclusive growth of a much reduced rate, say 4-6%, if we effectively harness our natural resources responsibly. Hence the obsession with target GDP growth rate of 8-9 % should be replaced by a paradigm shift in our developmental objective, which will give priority for inclusive growth aimed at sustainable and responsible use of natural resources.
We should dispense with the practice of projecting the total energy production capacity required to sustain 8-9 % GDP growth through the year 2020 0r 2030, and then aiming to attain that production capacity largely through conventional energy sources. Instead we should focus objectively in determining the lowest amount of energy required to wipe out the poverty, and how to meet that energy requirement at lowest overall cost to the society without compromising on the environmental well being on a sustainable basis.
The line of argument that the country has a right to emit more GHGs because its per capita emissions is one of the lowest may be suitable for the purpose of international negotiations, but it must be drastically modified to take into account the fact that it is the total GHG emissions which is relevant in the context of Climate Change, and not the per capita emissions. We cannot ignore the fact that the huge increase in total GHG emissions, which is inevitable with 8-9 % growth, will lead to heavy pollution of land, air and water, and will adversely impact the legitimate interests of various sections of our society while also leading to the exploitation of our natural resources in an unsustainable fashion.
We must appreciate that there is a limit to the nature’s ability to support the provision of products and services required by the increasing human population. Such a demand on the nature must be carefully managed, which is not possible if we set a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for such a huge population, which is growing every year.
In the global context of Climate Change, what is needed is the honest effort by every nation to reduce the total GHG emissions, and not exercising the individual right to increase emissions. While a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for India will lead to such a blunder, it is eminently possible to ensure steady development of all sections of our society by taking honest measures to reduce GHG emissions. Highest levels of energy efficiency, optimal demand side management, widespread usage of new & renewable energy sources, and responsible use of our natural resources are essential in this regard.
In this regard the menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy as recommended by ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ clearly falls short of the requirement, and hence much more proactive strategies to reduce the overall GHG emissions are needed.
Lecturer, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial Engineering and Management College, Lucknow and
Doctoral Fellow, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow
Abstract For having all round development of the economy, the need of the hour is to have sound land use planning that can help to mitigate the negative effects of land use change and enhance the efficient use of resources with minimal impact on future generations. Instead of encroaching on fertile land for the establishment of agro-economic zones, we should aim to set up these zones on barren and uncultivable land. If these areas are exhausted or unavailable, we should only then go for cultivable land as a last option. It would be a great blunder if we continue to shift our valuable fertile agricultural land for purposes other than agriculture and its allied purposes. Let more investment on infrastructure be allowed in distant barren and uncultivable lands for the time being. In that way our agricultural land would be saved for us as well as for our coming generation.
1. Introduction Land is an essential pre-requisite both for a primary production system as well as for meeting social priorities and therefore, must be available in adequate extent and desired quality. With the growth and development of the Indian economy we observe that the per capita availability of the land resource is declining due to various reasons. Successful future development planning will now depend on scientific land use planning with specific consideration on maintaining and improving the interrelationship between land and water cycles.
In developing countries, like India, problems of soil erosion and land degradation are intimately associated with land husbandry, as well as growth promoting developmental activities. It is therefore necessary to ensure the generation of sustainable livelihoods in terms of food and income through the proper maintenance and enhancement of the productivity of the resource base. Our aim is to save the degrading land resource is because all agricultural activities depend on the physical environment .Human survival depends upon the food production and also agriculture sector plays a strategic role in the process of economic development.
But with the growing rate of urbanization and increasing population the acquisition of the land for nonfarm activities has been rampant all over India. In many cases land acquisition has been for the setting up of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and it has put an important focus on the loss of agricultural land. This problem was addressed in a National Development Council meeting on December 23, 2006, by our Prime Minister Manmohan Singh when he said that: “I agree that we must minimize the diversion of agricultural land and, given the choice, must opt for using wasteland for non-agricultural purposes. However, it must be kept in mind that industrialization is a national necessity if we have to reduce the pressure on agriculture and provide gainful, productive employment to millions of our youth who see no future in agriculture.” Land acquisition for any purpose other than agriculture has been modifying the land use pattern of India and often has turn out to be negative. Uttar Pradesh, one of the most populous states of India, is no exception. With the passing of time, more and more fertile land is being acquired, either willingly or forcibly, in the name of development.
2. Agricultural Overview of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (U.P) has a population of 166.2 million with a density of 690 persons per square kilometer. The state has a total of 242.02 lakh hectare ,of which 167.50 lakh hectares is under cultivation. About 58 lakh hectares of wastelands have been treated and brought under cultivation. Despite the state receiving an income of about 30 per cent from agriculture, approximately 31.4 percent of fertile land is used for non-agricultural uses. Also forest cover that plays an important role in balancing the ecosystem is less than 7 percent of the area, and that too is not effectively covered. According to forest policy the land area should be one-third forest cover for a healthy environment.
Adverse environmental impact is now reflected in falling yields and increasing area of ‘other fallow and current fallow’ lands, as it is becoming uneconomical to cultivate. For example in Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, Lucknow and Unnao districts, other and current fallow lands have increased up to 15 percent. In U.P. cereal production was 41.76 million metric tones in 2001-02, which fell to 37.57 million metric tones in 2004-05 due to land degradation. Over the last 50 years, despite treating most of the wastelands and added it mostly to agricultural land, it is reported that after few years of cropping, the land again becomes infertile and uneconomical.
Uneconomic agriculture, landlessness among rural masses, and the quest of modernization, has created momentum for rural communities to migrate from rural to urban areas, towards metropolitan cities where congestion and pollution is unimaginable. During the last fifty years the land under non-farm use, which is related mainly to urban areas, has almost doubled. And it will continue to grow. More than 50 percent of districts in U.P have an land area no under farm use that is above the state average of 10.6 percent land under non-farm use. In Ambedkar Nagar, Kushi Nagar, Sant Ravi Das Nagar and Ghaziabad districts, the land under non-farm use has gone beyond 15 percent, and many other districts are on the same trend.
2.1 Existing Land Use (2002-2005) If we analyze land utilization from 2002 to 2005 we find that during these five years the land put to non-agricultural uses has risen 5.3 percent and the current fallow has risen to 18.6for agriculture percent. The land, which is lifeline for humans, that is forest land and net area sown, decreased to 0.1 percent and 0.8 percent respectively. The land area put to non-agricultural uses is about 10.9 percent and in most cases it is expanding onto fertile lands, even though this land is important for food grain production for feeding the teeming millions. We are in deficit of 23 percent forest cover, which is necessary to meet the National Forest Policy. This area is important to provide better environment and retain soil fertility. Urbanization and industrialization are the dialectal phenomenon, which cannot be stopped, but we must have certain policy to control their haphazard growth (Table 1).
Table 1
Source: (a) Based on Statistical Abstract of U.P., 2006. (b) Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P.
2.2 Growing Trend of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses The annual growth rate of land put to non-agricultural uses in Uttar Pradesh is not uniform. During 2001 and 2002, the growth rate was 3.2 percent, which dropped to 1.6 percent during 2002 and 2003, but again rose to 2.1 percent during 2004 and 2005. It is expected that during recent years the growth rate is much greater (Table 2).
Table 2: Annual Growth Trend of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Uttar Pradesh, 2001-2005
Source: Based upon Statistical Abstract of U.P., 2007
2.3 Regional Pattern of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses Since Uttar Pradesh is one of the largest States in India the land put to non-agricultural uses in rural and urban areas has been worked out according to its four geographical regions: Western region, Central region, Bundelkhand and Eastern region. During 2001 and 2008, comparatively the Western region is the highest urbanized but its growth rate was less than the State average in both rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses. In 2008, the Central region surpassed the State average in its rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses. The growth of land put to non-agricultural uses in rural areas rose to 19.1 percent, whereas in urban areas the growth was 43.0 percent. Similarly in Bundelkhand over the last eight years the growth rate has gone up to 17.6 percent in rural areas and 30.6 percent in urban areas. In the case of the Eastern region the growth rate in rural and urban areas of land put to non-agricultural uses was higher than the Western region, but further behind that of the Central region (11.3 percent) and Bundelkhand region (4.8 percent). The growth rate of total land put to non-agricultural uses was below the State average in only the Western region. But in Central region, Bundelkhand and Eastern regions it was quite high, that is 22.2, 18.5 and 10.7 percent respectively. The growth of rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses is alarmingly high in the Central region and Bundelkhand region, which needs urgent policy and control measures (Table 3).
Table 3: Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Regions of Uttar Pradesh, 2001 & 2008
Source: Based on Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P. (upgov.up.nic.in/engspatrika)
2.4 Districts Having Fast Growth of Land Put to Non- Agricultural Uses
In 2008 there were districts in Uttar Pradesh where rural land put to non-agricultural uses rose higher than the state average of 10.7 percent. For example the highest proportion of land put to non-agricultural uses are occupied in districts like Ghaziabad (18.4%), Ambedkar Nagar (17.6%), Kushi Nagar (17.4%), Sant Kabir Nagar (15.3%), Ballia (14.8%), Ghazipur (14.0%).
While calculating the growth rate over 2001 and 2008, we worked out the average annual growth rate of rural areas put to non-agricultural uses and the State average comes 1.5 percent. There are districts where the annual growth rate is much greater than the State average, for example Chitrakoot (10.4%), Faizabad (8.7%), Mahoba (6.6%), Kanpur Urban (6.5%), Unnao (5.6%) and Ambedkar Nagar (5.0%).
In most cases the land put to non-agricultural uses in rural areas is influenced by the expansion of neighboring towns and cities, which influence the transition of rural areas to urban land. For vertical industrial and urban growth or vertical settlements in rural areas there is an urgent need of government policy, which should be strictly implemented through the Town and Country Planning.
2.5 Fast Growth of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Blocks If we go to the micro-block level to understand the fast growth of rural land put to non-agricultural uses, we find at least 29 blocks have a very fast growth rate. These include blocks like Razapurand Loni in Ghaziabad, Morava in Muzaffarnagar, Kashi Vidyapeeth in Varanasi and Kaurihar in Allahabad. In these blocks the land put to non-agricultural uses is more than one fifth of the total area of each block. There are blocks where the annual growth rate is more than 10 percent, for example Dabri in Gautam Budh Nagar, Sarojininagar in Lucknow, Rasulabagh in Kanpur Dehat and Bhitargaon in Kanpur Nagar.
3. Need for Agro-Economic Zone With the passage of time the conversion of farm land for non farm activities has been occurring at a faster rate. Often these non farm activities around farm lands have an adverse affect on crop growth. This conversion of farm land into non farm land opens the gate for an intensive rate of the acquisition of land for non farm activities. The prevailing practice is to acquire land on the fringe of cities, where most infrastructure is available and market forces are playing. So for higher monetary gains valuable agricultural land is acquired from innocent farmers by luring/inducing/forcing them by money and/or muscle power. Farmers, who have depended upon agriculture for centuries, tend to sell off their land. But it takes few decades for them to adjust with the non farm activities.
The process of land acquisition, along with the adverse impact of the Green Revolution on soil fertility, as well as the irregularity of the monsoon rainfall, have brought down food production. If we analyze the production of wheat, one of the major food crops we observe that its production per hectare was 2708 kg in the year 2000-01 but it decreased to 2602 kg per hectare in 2004-05. In that time, the national per hectare production of wheat declined 106 kg. Despite the fact that the population growth shows an upward trend.
We cannot deny the fact that urbanization and industrialization brings with it development and we cannot just deny being an agrarian economy, as still about 60 percent of Indians are rural and depend upon agriculture. The answer is to have Agro Economic Zones in the line and pattern of Special Economic Zones. These Agro Economic Zones will boost the economy of the area, because it will be able to generate employment for the local inhabitants, and will also help in giving a boost to the agrarian economy of the state and country as a whole.
3.1 Priority of Land Acquisition for Agro- Economic Zone It is high time that we save our agricultural land and must disperse our urbanization in all the regions in a balanced way. This could be achieved by setting up If Agricultural Economic Zones (AEZ) adjacent to small and medium towns, where non-agricultural lands are available. Maybe more infrastructure would be required for the zones to be established in these areas, but in the longer run we will be able to reap benefits from our hardships. Our aim in this would be to save our valuable fertile agricultural land and allow the small and medium towns to grow parallel to bigger cities. This would further pave the way for a sustainable urban growth.
The alternative of saving valuable agricultural land, is to utilize our land which is barren and uncultivable wasteland as a first priority. After the first priority is exhausted or no more of such land is available in a particular district, we should go for barren cultivable wasteland as a second priority. Similarly the last option for acquiring land should be of old fallow land of more than five years. During 2004-05 in nearly 28 districts of Uttar Pradesh barren and uncultivable lands that are of an area greater than the State average are available. Similarly barren and cultivable wasteland and old fallow land are available in 25 and 24 districts of Uttar Pradesh respectively, which are also more than the State average. It has been experienced that the revenue records of the State do not show the correct picture of land use statistics. Therefore satellite imageries should be the basis for occupying these non agricultural lands for Agro Economic Zones (Table 6).
3.2 Policy Formulation for Agro Economic Zones For establishment of the Agro- Economic Zones all primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in the rural economy should be combined in the agro activity centered growth. It should aim towards the development of agro based industries in the state of Uttar Pradesh and transform the state into a major agro industrial hub. So as to attract more investors towards the agro economic zones the Uttar Pradesh Agro Economic Zone (AEZ) Policy should provide promoters and investors with a unique double way exemptions and incentives plan. The development plan pertaining to the Uttar Pradesh AEZ should be divided into different categories based upon the priority list given in 3.1 .
Features of the Uttar Pradesh AEZ Policy should be that- The methods used in the acquisition of lands should be highly effective and time conserving. The use of single window system pertaining to granting of permits and approvals based on the issues such as work force and environment should be propagated. There should be exemptions pertaining to registration fees and stamp duties. The exemptions from different kinds of tariffs, local and state duties, and taxes pertaining to the functions in the Agro Economic Zones should be considered. Permission pertaining to the setting up of power generation units by the manufacturing units for their own use should be allowed.
Issues related to Uttar Pradesh Agro Economic Zone are- Law and order: For regulating law and order the State Government of Uttar Pradesh should take appropriate measures. Taxes, duties, local taxes levied by the State Government of Uttar Pradesh: All kind of taxes levied by the State Government of Uttar Pradesh including sales tax, purchase tax, cess, octroi, etc. related to the supply of services and goods should be exempted. Water Supply: The area of the Agro Economic Zone should have adequate supply of water as suggested by the administrative authority of the AEZ. Power Supply: The area of AEZ should have continuous supply of power and also have back up power service in case of stand by situations. Registration of SSI and IT enabled services: The administrative authorities should be empowered to grant permanent and provisional registration for the small-scale industry and information technology enabled service units that are either related to the agriculture or should be able to boost the agro economy of the zone.
4. Conclusion Though agriculture in India is not so lucrative because of many geographical and social factors, but whatever agricultural land is available should be maintained intact. Agriculture is the fundamental basis of India’s survival. Therefore we must have a proper strategy for land use planning in a scientific manner. The lands that are not cultivated, that are barren and uncultivable wasteland, as well as old fallows, are enough to meet our urban demands and Special Economic Zones/ Agro Economic Zones. Simply on the basis of availability of infrastructure or agricultural land we should not go for establishing these zones. It would be a serious mistake, which would be irreversible. Therefore, it is most essential to identify the non-agricultural land through satellite imageries and it should be a compulsion to utilize these non-agricultural lands on priority basis. Agricultural land should not be allowed simply to be converted into other land uses. There should be strict check and control for land use changes, and based on clear cut formulated policies.
Environmentalist
Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi
Covered with sweat, the chelvanji is at work inside the kuin (well). Already about a depth of thirty to thirty five hands (cubits) have been dug. Now onwards the heat inside will go on increasing. The width of the kuin and its circumference are extremely narrow. Just the distance of a hand separates the back and the chest of the squatting chelvanji from the earth. In such a narrow space one cannot dig with a kulhari (axe) or a phawara (shovel); it is with the help of a basauli that the digging is done. The basauli is a tool which looks like a small phawara with a small handle; the pointed blade is in iron and the handle in wood.
The already hard work being carried out inside the well gets affected by the ambient heat. To lessen the heat, those who are on top, on the earth’s surface, vigorously throw fistfuls of sand from time to time into the pit. Thanks to this, the fresh air of the top is thrust down and the hot, stifling air accumulated down is forced up. The sand grains being thrown from such a height could well hit the head of the chelvanji at work; therefore, to protect his head, the latter wears a headgear made of brass or some other metal as a helmet. Inside, after a little digging, malba collects around the feet of the chelvanji. A little tub (dol) or bucket (balti) is lowered to him with the help of the rope.
The mud is collected into it. When this is brought up, inspite of all the precautions taken, there is still the possibility of some pebbles falling out. The helmet will then protect the chelvanji from these also.
Chelvanjis or chejaros are people who are expert at digging wells and also at doing a very special chinai (covering) of their inner walls. This work is called cheja. The kuin at which the chejaro is working is no ordinary construction. A kuin is in fact a very small kuan (well), kuin is feminine and kuan, masculine. The kuin is actually small only in width, as far as its depth goes, it is quite deep. In Rajasthan, the depth of kuins can vary for specific reasons from place to place.
The kuin differs from the kuan in yet another way. The kuan is dug to tap the water table but the kuin does not access the water table in the same way as the kuan does. The kuin collects rain water in a very special way that too even when there is no rainfall. In other words the water of the kuin comes neither from the surface water which trickles down nor from the water table. It is a complicated affair which can best be described as the upanishadic neti,..neti (not this, not this).
In the desert the extent and the depth of sand are infinite. Here even if there has been heavy rainfall, it does not take long for the water to be absorbed in the ground. But from place to place, beneath the surface of the sand, at a depth ranging from 10 to 15 to 50 to 60 hands, there can be a layer of gypsum. Wherever it is present, this layer is quite long and large; however, since it is covered by sand it is not visible from the top.
In such places it is through the changes detected in the soil that one can discover the layer of gypsum while digging for a kuan. In the case of kuans, water can always be reached at a depth of 150-200 hands but then this water is very often salty. Therefore, it is unfit for drinking. This is why, in such regions, kuins are built. To detect the layer, the experience of generations also comes in handy. Should even a little rain water stagnate in such places, then it is the indication that a layer of gypsum is present there.
This layer stops the water from percolating till the salty water table. In such cases, the rainwater which falls gets trapped between the sandy surface and the gypsum layer beneath it; it then spreads as a humid patch. During periods of intense heat, it is possible for this humidity to evaporate. But in such regions, Nature offers yet another unique kindness. The particles of sand are very fine; they do not stick to each other like the particles of earth do. Where there is attachment (lagav) there is also detachment (algav) . The particles of earth that stick to each other can also be dislodged: that is why some places are bereft. In regions where there is a predominance of black or mixed domat earth such as in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and others, as soon as rain stops and the sun shines, the earth particles stick to each other and thus there are cracks in the soil, the fields and the yards. Then, the humidity collected in the soil escapes from these cracks as vapour to go back to the atmosphere, the moment the heat starts.
Yet here, union comes from disintegration. Normally in the desert, the sand particles remain dispersed. Since there is no mutual attraction, therefore there is no separation. When rain falls, the particles become a little heavy but still they do not get dislodged. That is why there are no cracks on the surface of the desert. The rainwater that gets collected inside remains there. On one side it is protected by the layer of gypsum, which runs underneath, and on the other side, the innumerable particles of sand stand on rigorous watch on the surface.
Every single drop which falls in this region penetrates the sand and is transformed into humidity. Thus when a kuin is made, its belly, its empty cavity transforms the humidity present in the sand surrounding it into drops once more. Each drop seeps in to fill up the kuin with water – water as sweet as ambrosia in an ocean of salty water.
To access this ambrosia the people of the desert like the Gods during the samudra manthan have not spared any effort. They elaborated a whole science to translate their experience into practicality. This science classifies the available water into three forms. The first form is palar pant, which is water that is directly obtained from the rains. This water falls on the surface of the earth and is contained in rivers, lakes adi (etc). The word adi itself is pregnant with meanings, which will be revealed later on.
The second form is called patal pani, or one can say ‘hadean water’, (i.e., actually subterranean water). This refers to the water table, which is accessible from wells.
Between the palar and patal forms we have the third form of water which is rejani pani. This water percolates through the earth surface but does not reach the water table.
To measure the rainfall the terms inches or centimetres are not used; instead it is the word reja which is used. And reja does not measure the precipitation which falls on the surface; it measures the amount of water stored within the earth’s surface. If there has been a rainfall in the desert, which allows five fingers of water to infiltrate into the earth, then it is said that five fingers reja rain has fallen.
Thanks to the gypsum layer, the rejani water does not mix with the patali water. In the absence of such a layer, the rejani water slowly percolates to the water table and thus loses its specific properties. For if at places the water table is salty then on reaching it, the rejani water too will become salty.
It is indeed a special art to construct a kuin which will be able to collect this special rejani water. The chejaro who takes down a kuin having a circumference of 4 to 5 hands to a depth of 30 to 60-65 hands amply measures the skill and caution required.
Chejo, which is the art of covering with (chinai), is die very life of the kuin. The smallest error while doing this work can cost the life of the chejaro. Every day, a little bit of digging is done, the debris are removed with the help of a dol (tub), then any further digging in stopped and the covering of the surface of the work done so far is done so that there is no caving in.
As the cejaro goes deeper at a depth of 20-25 hands, it starts getting hotter and hotter and the air starts getting rarer and rarer. Then fistfuls of sand are thrown from the top. The gust of air which displaces the huge sand dunes of the desert then wafts from the small fistful of sand to reach the sweating chelvanji down below and give him some respite. At places this already difficult work of making a kuin gets further complicated. At such places it is not possible to stop the earth from sliding by lining it with stones; in such cases the kuin has to be ‘tied’ with ropes.
The first day, at the same time as the kuin is dug, a huge pile of grass named khimp is collected. “While the chejaro starts the digging, the rest of the people start weaving a rope which is three fingers thick with the khimp. At the end of the first day’s work, the kuin reaches a depth of about ten hands. The first circle of rope is then installed by setting the rope against the wall; on top of the first circle, comes the second one and on top of the second, the third circle, then the fourth and so on and so forth. The thick and coarse khimp rope presses with all its weight at each round and each round of rope gets interlocked with the other as they are rolled on top of each other. The extremity of the rope reaches the ground level.
The next day more digging (the length of a few hands) takes place; a few more hands of earth is dug out and the kundali (coils) of rope which was fixed the previous day is then shifted to the newly dug area. The upper part of the free wall is then covered with new rope. To maintain the coils of rope on the wall, in between they are covered with chinai (masonry work).
For a 5 hands large kuin, 15 hands of rope is required to make just one coil of the kundali. For a depth of one hand, 8-10 coils of rope are required and this itself measures up to 150 hands. Therefore, if a 30 hands deep kuin has to be lined then one requires a rope of around 4,000 hands. People who are watching and are not familiar with the process will wonder what is going on: the digging of the kuin or the making of rope?
At some places neither too much gypsum nor too much khimp is found. Yet if rejani water is present kuins are definitely dug. At such places the wall of the kuins arc lined with long slabs of wood, made from the branches of ami, ban, bawal, or kimbat. The ami is best suited for this work. However, even if the best or second best wood is not available, one can always use ak.
The slabs are made to stand, bottom to top, interlocked with each other. They are then tied together with the khimp rope. At places even the chag rope is used. This tying up too has the shape of a kundali and is therefore sometimes called sampni the serpentine.
The chelvanji, who is busy digging and lining the kuin, knows the properties of the soil very well. The moment he touches the layer of gypsum, the work is stopped. At that moment the water starts oozing, and the chejaro comes up.
The successful completion of the kuin, i.e., when water is reached, becomes the occasion of a celebration. In any case, normally from the very first day good care is taken of the workers, as per the traditions of this place; but on the completion of the work there is a celebration and a special feast is organised. At the moment of departure, the chelvanji receives several types of gifts. Jt is not as if from that day the relationship between the chejaro and the village is over. According to tradition, throughout the year, during auspicious occasions and festivities, during weddings, he receives the gifts customarily given to members of the family and close friends. During harvest, in the khadiyan, a special pile of cereal is kept for him. Nowadays the tradition of just giving a salary for the work done has been adopted.
There are many places where instead of the chejaro, ordinary householders themselves become masters of the art. In several villages of Jaisalmer, the kuins made by Paliwal Brahmins and meghwalas (counted as a scheduled caste today) two hundred years ago are still tirelessly providing water.
There are three major reasons for keeping the mouth of the kuin narrow. The drops of water coming from the humidity trapped in the sand seep in very slowly. Throughout the day the amount of water that gets collected in the kuin is barely enough to fill two to three pots. The amount of water lying at the bottom of the kuin is so little that were the opening to be large, the small amount of water would spread and then it would be impossible to bring it up. In the narrow kuin, the water, which slowly oozes in, attains a height of 2-4 hands. At some places, for this very reason, instead of using a small bucket for pulling the water up, a small charas (water skin) is used. A metal bucket does not get immersed. But the water skin made of coarse cloth or leather has a heavy iron ring around its neck. When the charas hits the water, the heavy top part falls on the lower part and thus, the charas gets properly immersed even in the small amount of water. Once it gets filled, when it is brought up, the charas takes its full shape.
Of late, roads have been built around some villages and trucks go by them. In such villages we find that small charsis have been fashioned out of torn tyre tubes.
Another reason determining the circumference of the kuin is the scorching heat that prevails in these regions. If the circumference is big then the water within the kuin will spread and the big circumference will not be able to stop the water from evaporating.
To keep the kuin and its water clean it is necessary to cover it and it is easier to cover a narrow opening. Generally all the kuins are covered with a wooden cover; however, at places one may also find covers made of small twigs or grass like vetiver. Where new roads have been built, leading to the increased coming and going of unfamiliar and new people, there the water, which is as sweet as ambrosia, needs to be protected. At such places, often, small locks have been put on the cover of the kuins. Locks are also put on the pulley (ghirni) or the wheel (chakri) fixed to the kuin for pulling water.
If the kuin is deep then a ghirni or a chakri is fixed to it to facilitate the pulling out of water. This device is also known as gaderi., charkhi, or pharedi. The pharedi could also be fixed on two iron arms. However, generally, it is fixed on a rounded, strong trunk, after a hole has been bored through it. This is called audak. Without the audak and charkhi it would become very difficult to draw water from such a deep and narrow well. The audak and the charkhi enable the charsi to come up without hitting against the wall of the well and without spilling water. It is also helpful to pull the heavy weight.
A gypsum layer usually runs for a long distance and that is why all along this length kuins are constructed. In fact, at places, one can find 30-40 kuins in a big and clean field. To each house its kuin^ and if the family is large then there is more than one.
The sacrosanct line, which divides private property from common property, gets strangely erased when it comes to kuins. To each their own kuin; everyone has the right to construct a kuin and use its water. However, the kuin is constructed on land which is the collective property of the village. The rain which falls there remains throughout the year in the form of humidity and it is this humidity which feeds the kuins throughout the year. The amount of humidity present is determined by the amount of rainfall. Constructing a kuin in that area means sharing the humidity present there and that is why, though the kuin is a private property, since it is constructed on collective property, it falls under the control of the village society. It is only in case of dire necessity that permission is granted to build a new kuin.
Each day the kuin reinforces the meaning of the well-known proverb about the goose with the golden egg: throughout the day only 2 to 3 pots of sweet water can be drawn from the kuin. That is why, every day, at dusk, when the cows come back home raising dust, the village assembles around the kuins and it looks as if a mela (fair) is on. In the plain adjoining the village, the sound of the pulleys of the 30 to 40 kuins, turning at the same time mingles with that of the bells of the cattle returning from the grazing grounds. After 2 to 3 pots are filled up the bucket and ropes are kept back, the kuins are covered again. Throughout the night and throughout the next day the kuins will rest.
It is not as if gypsum layers are present under the sand throughout Rajasthan; that is why kuins are not to be found everywhere. However a gypsum layer does run through Churu, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Badmer: that is why, in these districts, kuins are to be found in each village. In fact, in the district of Jaisalmer, in the village named Khadedo Ki Dhani there were 120 kuins. People used to call this village cha-bisi (six times twenty). At places the kuins are called par and several villages of Jaisalmer and Badmer owe their existence to these pars which explains why several villages have the suffix par attached to their name: Janare Alo Par, Sirgu Ah Par.
The name of the gypsum layer can change from place to place. Somewhere it is called charoli and somewhere else dhandbro or dhardharo. Somewhere it is bittoo ro balliyo and elsewhere it is just khadi.
And it is on the strength of this khadi that in the midst of a salty water region, the kuin gives sweet water.
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Anupam Mishra
Anupam Mishra travels across India studying rainwater harvesting methods and learning from the local people behind them. He presents his findings to NGos, development agencies and environmental groups, pulling from centuries of indigenous wisdom that has found water for drinking and irrigation even in extremely arid landscapes through wells, filter ponds and other catchment systems. Anupam Mishra has been working to bridge the gap between modern water manage- ment technology and india’s heritage of water harvesting, so that every community is self-sustainable and efficiently safekeeping an increasingly scarce and precious resource. Anupam Mishra has served Gandhi peace foundation, New delhi as the secretary.
Human Rights Law Activist
worked as a journalist with the Maharashtra Herald and
Indian Express as a features writer
(This is an article I wrote after interacting with the Bora community in Digoli, Uttaranchal. I feel it is necessary to save the traditional occupation of this community, even as we find newer means of producing the fibre and weaving the fabric. As far as my knowledge goes, this fabric has already a small market and can generate a potential market. Of course, price wise it might not be very competitive compared with cotton and jute, but definitely it will strike a balance with items of silk and muslin.)
The community was brought into existence when one of the two Rawat brothers married a Bora girl, descending upon the generations to come the title of Bora Kuthalia. “We are still Thakurs by lineage,” insists Bachche Singh Bora. “It’s just that our great grandfather decided to marry out of his community and villagers tagged us as Bora children, as per the woman’s caste, when it is the men’s caste that is to be recorded,” he adds, with some amount of disappointment.
The Bora community that lives in the Kumaon Himalayas is known for their trade in the products made from the cannabis plant, the commercial cultivation of which was banned over ten years ago. While the seeds, which have no toxic content, are used as a spice in the household, the stem of the plant makes for a tough and durable fibre. “The seeds are used extensively in food, during the winters, because they provide warmth. Moreover, they are not even toxic, so can safely be consumed by everyone,” elaborates Govind Bora.
The fibre too offers multiple uses. “We made sacks to carry the grass cut for the cattle and also strings to tie the buffalos to their stands,” says Kamla Bora, who gave up this profession many years ago, because of the government restrictions. “Which is also why, we are called Boras – the local term for gunny bags,” says Shamu Bora from Sukhna. Shamu is currently learning to weave with silk and wool.
Spread out over different villages in the Kumaon, I interacted with the community, primarily around Digoli and other villages in their vicinity, where some families still weave with the fibre. Working on a simple loom, which is strung around the waist of the weaver, the other end being pinned to the wall, a rough cloth is woven from the cannabis fibre. “The length can be made to order, but the width will remain in ratio to the waist of the woman,” explains Bachuli Devi Bora. However, this didn’t hamper the number of items that were created. From (budhala) carpets to bed covers and table cloths with some embroidery, the lady had a stock of such goods. “We weave a number of pieces and stitch them together accordingly,” she explained. The goods are then sold at fairs and in the local market.
Producing the fabric isn’t an easy task however. “The weaving doesn’t take as much time. It is actually the process of making the fibre that requires a lot of effort,” states Dhan Singh Bora, as reason for the cost price. Once the seeds are harvested, the stem of the plant is dried in the sun, where after it is soaked in water for a day or two, before the craftsmen peel the skin off the stem using their teeth. “The skin of course cannot be used just as it is, it must further be split into finer lengths, until you get the fibre to become as fine as a thread,” says he.
However, this profession is waning in present times. With the ban on cultivation of the cannabis plant, for fear of its toxic contents such as hashish and marijuana finding illegal routes, the community began to find it difficult to make these items and have switched to other activities like rearing cows and buffaloes and selling milk and butter to earn a livelihood. “The raw material cannot be grown in the required quantity,” explains Bachche Singh. “If we must grow enough to make the budhlas (carpets) and kuthlas (bags), the patwari will take a sum for allowing this cultivation,” he states. And the sum can vary from anywhere between absolutely no cost (!) to a whopping Rs 500. “It depends on what relations you have maintained with this local legal authority,” says Kaushlya Devi.
Of course the fabric is much sought after in the international market. Large manufacturing units all over the world, with the help of governments and agriculturists, are making efforts to grow the less toxic varieties of the cannabis plant. This so, even as a small community tucked away in the folds of the mountains that always thrived on this business finds its long-standing tradition coming to an end.
Over 30 years of professional experience in electricity industry in the areas of generation, transmission and distribution working with Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Govt. of India; Electricity Corporation of New Zealand, New Zealand and Queensland Electricity Transmission Corporation, Brisbane, Australia
The ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ which was set up under the Planning Commission to develop a strategy for India’s 12th Five Year Plan has released its interim report recently. While this interim report echoes the earlier govt. stand that India is one of the lowest GHG emitters in world, and hence has a right not to be forced with carbon emission cap, it also clearly recognizes that India is highly vulnerable to climate change, and hence has a strong interest in minimizing the risk of climate change. It refers to India’s announcement to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25 % over 2005 level by 2020 through pursuit of proactive policies. This interim report has provided a menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy.
The main sectors examined in this report are power, transport, industry, building and forestry. It is very relevant to note this report indicates that it is feasible to exceed the target of bringing down the emissions intensity of its GDP by 10 -13 % by 2020 through aggressive efforts. In view of the huge deleterious impacts to vulnerable section and environment of high GDP growth strategy of the successive governments, and the looming crises associated with the inevitable climate change, the civil society has a special interest in effectively participating in exploring various options available to our society to reduce the total GHG emissions. In this regard an objective review of the menu of options recommended by this expert group to reduce GHG emission intensity becomes essential.
Salient features – towards unsustainable growth rate
A major concern with the approach of this expert group is that it starts with the base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals.It appears that the social, economic and environmental impacts on the vulnerable sections of our society associated with a sustained GDP growth of 8 – 9 % over the next 20 years were never a matter of concern to this planning group.Such a high growth rate will mean the manufacture of products and provision of services at an unprecedented pace leading to: setting up of more factories/manufacturing facilities; consumption of large quantities of raw materials; unsustainably increasing demand for natural resources such as water, minerals, timber etc.; acute pressure on the govt. to divert agricultural/forest lands for other purposes; huge demand for energy; clamor for more of airports, air lines, hotels, shopping malls, private vehicles, express highways etc. Vast increase in each of these activities, while increasing the total GHG emissions, will also reduce the ability of natural carbon sinks such as forests to absorb GHG emissions.
The net effect associated with high GDP growth target will be that the total GHG emissions will increase by considerable margin, even if reduced emissions intensity of country’s GDP is feasible. The desirability of this scenario to our society needs to be questioned in the context that the increase in total GHG emissions will be closely associated with the increased pollution of air, land and water; and the increased denial of access to natural resources to the vulnerable sections of the society. Reduced area and density of forests, dammed rivers, polluted air, forced displacements which will all be the consequences of a frenetic 9% GDP growth are bound to impact the vulnerable sections of our society. Since the vulnerable sections of the society are also the most impacted lot due to climate change, the civil society has a crucial role to ensure that their legitimate interests are protected adequately.
A quick look at the possible impact of 9% sustained growth on the critical sectors of the Indian economy can reveal a disturbing trend. The transport sector will demand much higher consumption of energy such as diesel, petroleum and LNG. These products which already have about 75% import content are projected to reach 85-90% soon with disastrous consequences on energy security. The pollution loading of vastly increased consumption of petroleum products, which has given rise to concerns in urban areas already, is likely to reach extremely unhealthy levels. Along with increased GHG emissions and much higher levels of suspended particulate matter, the pressure on the transportation infrastructure can become unmanageable. Increased use of private passenger vehicles, which is already a huge concern, will escalate to choke our roads and lungs.
Industrial activities, as a consequence of 9% sustained growth, will put unbearable demand on land, fresh water, energy and other raw materials. Such a demand on land (such as in SEZs, coastal industrial corridors, IT&BT parks etc.) have already given rise to a lot of concerns to social scientists, and already has witnessed social upheavals as in Singur, West Bengal. The industrial sector, which is already responsible for 22% of total GHG emissions, will contribute hugely to the increase in total GHG emissions of the country. Similarly, 9% GDP growth will lead to steep increase in demand for buildings in the form of factories, transportation infrastructure, offices, hotels, etc. which in turn will put huge demand for construction materials and energy. In this scenario can the increase in GHG emissions be far behind?
The most telling impact of frenetic economic growth of 9% over 20 years will be on forests, rivers and other natural resources. As against National Forest Policy target of 33% of forests & tree cover, the country has less than 20% of the same, which are considered to be the most important sinks of GHG emissions. The demand for additional lands and minerals for the increased activities in all the above mentioned sectors will further reduce the forest & tree cover, which in turn will severely impact the availability of fresh water and on the nature’s ability to absorption GHGs. The impact of vastly reduced forest & tree cover on human health and on all aspects of our society requires no further elaboration. Whereas the increased economic activities associated with 9% growth will certainly result in vastly increased GHG emissions, the same will reduce the ability of forest & tree cover to absorb GHG emissions from the atmosphere. In this scenario it is anybody’s guess as to how the country’s total GHG emissions can be reduced to an acceptable level.
The report seems to mimic the tall claims made under the Green India Mission (GIM). The objective of GIM is to double the area to be taken up for afforestation and eco-restoration in India in the next 10 years at a gigantic investment of about 40,000 Crores. While the frenetic pace of economic development associated with 9% GDP growth rate will lead to considerable reduction in the existing natural forests of high ecological value, GIM may increase the tree over mostly with mono-culture species of much reduced ecological value. Such a situation will not only increase the GHG emission due to deforestation, but will also drastically reduce the ability of our forests to absorb GHG emissions. This anomaly has not been considered at all in the report.
Of various sectors of our economy energy sector has the highest contribution of emissions with 58% of CO2 equivalent in year 2007, as per this report.Within the energy sector the largest chunk of emissions was from electricity generation amounting to 65% of CO2 equivalent in that sector.
The report indicates that the compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of emissions trend between 1994 and 2007 for electricity was one of the highest with 5.6% along with cement and waste. The report says: “Growth in these sectors can be attributed to tremendous increase in capacity of production during 1994 to 2007. Further, the emission intensity as expressed in grams of CO2 -eq per Rs. of GDP has fallen from 66.8 in 1994 to 56.21 in 2007, indicating the impact of government policies that encourage energy efficiency in various sectors of the economy”. In view of the huge CO2 – eq emission contribution of electricity to the total GHG emissions in the country, a cursory look at what the report recommends for this sector becomes important.
As in integrated energy policy (IEP), this Planning Commission report assumes that the country should have 8 – 9% GDP growth, because of which it projects gross electricity generation requirement of about 2,360 Billion kWH in 2020; as compared to 813 Billion kWH in 2007-08 (about 3 times increase). The report also indicates that aggressive efforts in bringing energy efficiency to domestic and commercial appliances can save about 150 Billion kWH by 2020. Whereas it has assumed that the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets though efficiency improvement and demand side management as 10 Billion kWH, the national level statistics on inefficiency of agricultural pump-sets indicates that the losses are about 10% of the total electrical energy consumption. Hence, if we consider net generation requirement of 2,210 Billion kWH in 2020, the energy saving potential in agricultural pump-sets can be as high as 50 Billion kWH if can reduce the losses even by 25%, which is technically feasible. Similarly, the report indicates that the savings feasible from efficiency improvement measures in industries as about 60 Billion kWH.
Despite all the suggested measures the GHG emissions within power sector is expected to increase from 598 million tons of CO2 – eq emissions in 2007 to about 1,620 million tons of CO2 equivalents in 2020 for the 9 percent GDP growth scenario; an increase of 2.7 times. Even with all the suggested aggressive efforts in the report the total installed power generating capacity is projected to increase to about 363,000 MW by 2020 as compared to the total capacity of about 160,000 MW in 2007; an increase of about 2.3 times.
Shortcomings of the report
The report assumes coal power to be the least cost option, and that the coal power capacity needs to be increased to 230, 000 MW from the present level of about 80,000 MW. It states: “… This will require an annual coal supply of at least 1,000 million tons, two and a half times the present. Domestic mining will have to increase considerably otherwise imports will have to meet a large fraction of coal demand.” To increase the domestic mining large tracts of thick forests have to be destroyed. The report while eulogizing how much GHG emission saving can be achieved by steps mentioned in the report, it completely ignores how much GHG absorption potential will be lost by destroying forests.
The projected increase in the installed power generation capacity poses almost insurmountable logistical problems. “… In other words, it translates to adding about 20,000 MW of new generation capacity per annum. As against this, in the recent years, India has added only about 10,000 MW per annum…”. But this issue has not been dealt effectively, and how the gap can be bridged. The embedded GHG emissions in increasing the installed power capacity by about 150,000 MW are not even mentioned.
As in the integrated energy policy, the importance given to renewable energy sources is woefully inadequate. The report states: “Solar installed capacity if pursued with seriousness could grow to 20,000 MW by 2020. It is one of the critical technology options for India’s long term energy security. Several parts of India are endowed with good solar radiation and deploying solar even on 1 percent of the land area could result in over 500,000 MW of solar power.” With adequate encouragement given to feed-in-tariff mechanism for roof top mounted solar PV systems, for which there has been strong advocacy for a number of years, many times more than the 20,000 MW solar capacity can be realized; but sadly the required level of commitment is lacking.
As in the integrated energy policy, this report too has failed to put adequate emphasis on DSM measures, which with effective strategies can bring down the power capacity projection to a level much below 363,000 MW by 2020. Report says : “It is clear that in the absence of implementing DSM measures, India will continue to face power shortage in 2020, which itself could place an energy constraint on growth.”
A major problem for the Indian economy, as well as its environment, will be the unchecked growth of urban areas. The report states: “..The urban populations are predicted to rise to 550 million by 2030 or 42.0 percent of the total population….. This urban growth, combined with rapid growth in the economy, has resulted in putting enormous pressure on housing requirements, urban infrastructure and other services.” No measures have been contemplated to limit the growth of urban areas.
Way forward to ensure sustainable development of our masses:
The base line assumption that India needs to sustain an economic growth of 8 – 9 % over next 20 years to eradicate poverty and to meet its human development goals will lead to very many intractable problems for the society from social and environmental perspectives. Such a high growth rate has not been found necessary even in developed economies, where even at the highest growth period they are reported to have registered only 4-6 % growth. The so called “trickle down” benefits to vulnerable sections of our society through 8-9 % growth will be negligible as compared to the all round benefits associated with inclusive growth of a much reduced rate, say 4-6%, if we effectively harness our natural resources responsibly. Hence the obsession with target GDP growth rate of 8-9 % should be replaced by a paradigm shift in our developmental objective, which will give priority for inclusive growth aimed at sustainable and responsible use of natural resources.
We should dispense with the practice of projecting the total energy production capacity required to sustain 8-9 % GDP growth through the year 2020 0r 2030, and then aiming to attain that production capacity largely through conventional energy sources. Instead we should focus objectively in determining the lowest amount of energy required to wipe out the poverty, and how to meet that energy requirement at lowest overall cost to the society without compromising on the environmental well being on a sustainable basis.
The line of argument that the country has a right to emit more GHGs because its per capita emissions is one of the lowest may be suitable for the purpose of international negotiations, but it must be drastically modified to take into account the fact that it is the total GHG emissions which is relevant in the context of Climate Change, and not the per capita emissions. We cannot ignore the fact that the huge increase in total GHG emissions, which is inevitable with 8-9 % growth, will lead to heavy pollution of land, air and water, and will adversely impact the legitimate interests of various sections of our society while also leading to the exploitation of our natural resources in an unsustainable fashion.
We must appreciate that there is a limit to the nature’s ability to support the provision of products and services required by the increasing human population. Such a demand on the nature must be carefully managed, which is not possible if we set a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for such a huge population, which is growing every year.
In the global context of Climate Change, what is needed is the honest effort by every nation to reduce the total GHG emissions, and not exercising the individual right to increase emissions. While a target of 8-9 % GDP growth for India will lead to such a blunder, it is eminently possible to ensure steady development of all sections of our society by taking honest measures to reduce GHG emissions. Highest levels of energy efficiency, optimal demand side management, widespread usage of new & renewable energy sources, and responsible use of our natural resources are essential in this regard.
In this regard the menu of options to reduce GHG emission intensity in critical sectors of the Indian economy as recommended by ‘expert group on low carbon strategies for inclusive growth’ clearly falls short of the requirement, and hence much more proactive strategies to reduce the overall GHG emissions are needed.
Global warming has been considered as the existential threat for the man kind.The global community has identified many responses to reduce the impact of global warming; effectively reducing the emissions from coal burning is a major step in this regard.Coal power plants, which are considered to be the major source of Green House Gases (GHG), are at the focus of such efforts.The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), under the patronage of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was adopted in 1992 by most countries as a major global response to reduce global warming.
CDM permits industrialized countries (Annex 1 countries under Kyoto Protocol) to earn emission credits through investment in sustainable development projects that reduce overall GHG emissions in developing countries.The CDM allows emission-reduction projects to earn certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one ton of CO2. These CERs can be sold to industrialized countries to meet a part of their emission reduction targets.This mechanism was designed to stimulate sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility to meet their emission reduction limitation targets. Most of these reductions are through renewable energy, energy efficiency, and fuel switching (coal to non-coal options).
India is one of the leading countries, which has registered for a number of such CDM projects. Within the power sector four coal power plants in India are known to have applied for such CDM registration on the premise that the super critical technology to be deployed in such projects would lead to reduced CO 2 emission, and hence qualify for financial benefits under CDM.This scenario calls for a serious examination of such a claim because a detailed examination of nominated coal power projects will reveal that such projects will result in net increase in CO 2 emissions, and hence defeat the very purpose of CDM.
Super critical coal power plants will only reduce the emissions marginally.Such coal power plants are expected to involve an increase in thermal efficiency from about 33 – 35% for sub-critical coal power plants to about 37-39%, and may corresponds to a reduction of about 4 to 5% in emissions only.But such super critical coal power plants will consume a lot of coal, and water; they lead to destruction of thick tropical forests below which are the coal reserve; and they pollute the air, land and fresh water sources. Hence while the GHG potential of such individual coal power plants will be marginally less as compared to sub-critical coal power plants, the overall increase in GHGs at the country level will be much higher because of the addition of large number of such power plants. This defeats the very purpose of UNFCCC and CDM.
As has been the past experience, the regulation of pollution control measures in India is far from satisfactory, and hence adding super critical coal power plants does not necessarily lead to overall reduction in GHGs and atmospheric pollution. Due to higher operational costs of pollution control measures many such coal power plants may not continue to take care in reducing the pollution.Whereas the provision of CDM benefits to additional coal power plants may encourage the proliferation of such coal power plants, the fact that the overall GHG potential will increase enormously must initiate a thorough review of the very idea of CDM as applied to coal power plants.
Most environmental groups have called for an end to crediting coal plants with fighting global warming. Many experts who are closely following the CDM process have estimated that allowing new coal power projects to measure their emissions levels against older sub-critical coal power generating technology allows the project developers to exaggerate their greenhouse gas savings by 25 to 50 percent above where they actually are. As has been noticed recently there is a spurt in such power projects coming up in India, probably with a view to garner financial support of CDM, which otherwise might have been found economically unviable.The enormity of the problem can be gauged by the coal rush witnessed in the country with the reported approval of more than 170 coal fired power plants last year alone; this means nearly one project approved each working day.It is not difficult to imagine the huge impact on our society of so many additional coal power plants.
It is a small consolation that a CDM advisory panel that reviews the methodologies behind various offsetting schemes has recently recommended that the CDM benefits to coal power plant be suspended immediately. The Executive Board of the CDM is expected to take up that recommendation during a meeting shortly.“The (coal) projects perpetuate the burning of coal, the world’s most carbon intensive fossil fuel,” CDM Watch says in a note commenting on the methodology panel’s recommendation. “The financial support of coal projects fundamentally undermines the CDM’s climate mitigation goals.”
In this context the very idea of providing financial support to coal power projects, even if they super critical power plants, appear preposterous.In Indian scenario, where the electrical power generating capacity has increased from about 1,000 MW in 1947 to about 170,000 MW in 2010, the gross inefficiency prevailing in generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity is so huge that even the very idea of additional coal power projects seems sacrilegious.The social, environmental and economic impacts of coal power plants are so massive that a moratorium on additional coal power plants seems eminently advisable. The fact that the integrated energy policy has projected an increase in coal power capacity from about 80,000 MW in 2006 to about 400,000 MW by 2031-32 provides enough room for serious concerns, because most of the additional capacity projects are likely to be the candidates for CDM benefits.
In this regard a 3,960 MW Ultra Mega Power Project (UMPP) in coastal Andhra Pradesh, which was registered in the CDM system recently, is an example.Many such UMPPs are reported to be in pipeline and they all are likely to be applicants for CDM benefits.It is estimated by Sierra Club, Washington that this project when commissioned may cause over 12.3 million tons of excess carbon emissions to be emitted, and could result in an undeserved profit of about € 123 million based on current CER prices. Now if this much of CO2 emissions and CERs are multiplied by the number of UMPPs proposed, it means a lot of additional CO2 emission and a huge drain of CDM funds.At a time when green technologies are starving of essential funds, diverting huge sums of money for such coal projects which will only add to GHG emissions may be termed by many as criminal waste of scarce resources.Even if half of such funds were to be spent on energy efficiency improvement programmes in developing countries, it will mean a huge reduction in G
HG emissions, and numerous benefits to those communities on a sustainable basis.It is very unfortunate that UNFCC has ignored this stark reality.
As opposed to such a practice where profiteering by few private corporates are seen as encouraged by CDM, adequate investment in various green technologies will result in massive benefits to the society in addition to drastically reducing the GHG emissions. Investing in improving operational efficiency in generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity will give a lot more benefits without any of the attendant pollution related issues of additional coal power plants. Such efficiency improvement measures alone in India may mean an addition of more than 20,000 MW of virtual capacity, and equate to avoiding burning billions of tons of coal and millions of tons of GHG emissions.It should not be ignored that the aggregate technical and commercial losses in Indian power system are very high of the order of about 35% as against the world best practice of less than 10%. Without plugging this leak effectively it would mean a huge drain on the society to invest in additional coal power plants; even in super critical coal power plants.
The recent interim report of the expert group on low carbon strategies under Planning Commission has estimated that the efficiency improvement measures in power sector alone can reduce GHG emission by 200 Million Tons of CO2 equivalent by 2020 in India. Whereas these measures will provide perpetual benefits to the society in addition to improving the global environment, the additional coal power plants, even if they are super critical coal power plants, will lead to perpetual costs to the society. These efficiency improvement measures come at a much lower capital cost and at much lower overall societal costs.
India also has a huge potential in distributed renewable energy sources, which while reducing the GHG emissions to the minimum levels, will also address many problems of the grid based power network.Since the coal power plants have many hidden costs the true cost to the society of renewable energy sources will be much lower.Hence a coal power plant, even if it is a super critical coal power plant, must not be seen as a way of reducing the GHG emissions in India. Financial incentives through CDM for such coal power plants will be a criminal waste of international funding.
At a time when many CDM projects are coming under increased scrutiny because of their potential human rights abuses, it seems especially problematic to register coal based power projects in many states which have violently suppressed civil dissent. “CDM is supposed to promote sustainable development, and coal-based energy production is far from sustainable” say Alyssa Johl from the Center for International Environmental Law. “Coal-based power projects have serious negative impacts on the environment and human health that will impose real and significant long-term costs on governments and communities alike. Local communities have good reason to be concerned.”
Another issue that needs to be addressed is that while the large number of additional coal power plants in India will go to add to the base generation capacity, the power deficit in almost all states is more during peak hours than on the annual basis. This situation of a large number of coal power plants coming up in a short span of 5-10 years is likely to lead to a stage soon when there will be excess base generation capacity with the result that the overall Plant Load Factor (PLF) will come down drastically at a huge cost to the society. Many of the coal power plants may turn out to be uneconomical and may have to be shut down.
Hence the CDM based funding to the developing countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia etc. should be prioritized in power sector: firstly on efficiency improvements measures until the overall efficiency of the power sector in each country reaches the internationally acceptable levels; and then only on locally available renewable energy sources.
Mother earth is considered as one of the most beautiful planets in the Universe. Earth is the only planet in our galaxy that has enough water and environment to support plant, animal and human life. Unfortunately global human society is suffering due to various problems, which should be solved before it is too late. Most of the problems are created and generated by the human, especially so-called civil society. Nature needs care and love and people must take care of our beautiful planet if human want to survive on the earth. Unfortunately directionless and purposeless technological and scientific developments damage nature and create the ecological and environmental imbalances. Climate of the world is changing very fast, catastrophes are taking place almost every day, unknown hazardous diseases are appearing every now and then. These are the consequences of irrational use of planet’s resources. The only hope is that every person is capable of influencing the world in some way and that this influence would be positive. After all if we don’t look after our planet we will die and humanity will disappear from the earth.
Problems Facing Global Society: Critical Analysis
As we know that “Every year, six million children die from malnutrition before their fifth birthday. Every 3.6 seconds, about the time it’ll take you to read this sentence, another human being has died of starvation. Five million people die from water born illness every year. Almost 40 percent of the world’s population does not have basic sanitation and over one billion people still use unsafe sources of drinking water. HIV/AIDS takes the lives of 6,000 people every single day, as 8,200 more are infected with it. In Every thirty seconds, another African child dies of malaria, which accounts for the deaths of more than one million children a year. A woman in sub-Saharan Africa has a 1 in 16 chance of dying in childbirth. Her North American counterpart has a 1 in 3,700 risk. More than 40 percent of African women do not have access to basic education, although it’s proven that if a girl is educated for six years or more, as an adult her prenatal care, postnatal care, and childbirth survival rates will dramatically and constantly improve. Educated women are more likely to vaccinate their children. Every minute, a woman somewhere dies in pregnancy or childbirth. That’s 1,400 women every single day and 529,000 women each year dying from pregnancy-related causes. About five women have already died as you read this.” 1
World Bank economist Jean-François Rischard2 (2002) seriously argues that the next twenty years will be of critical implication to our planet. Resolution of global problems over the next years will determine the fate of our planet for the next generations. Rischard points out the twenty most pressing issues facing the global community. These are classified in three groups, one Issues involving the global community are global warming, biodiversity and ecosystem losses, fisheries depletion, deforestation, water deficits, maritime safety and pollution, second Issues requiring a global commitments are massive step-up in the fight against poverty, peacekeeping, conflict prevention, combating terrorism, Education for all, Global infectious diseases, digital divide, natural disaster prevention and mitigation and third Issues needing a global regulatory approach are reinventing taxation for the twenty-first century, biotechnology rules, global financial architecture, Illegal drugs, Trade, investment, and competition rules, Intellectual property rights, E-commerce rules, International labor and migration
Russian Philosopher Alexander Chumakov believes that“At the dawn of global civil society, the test for humanity is to achieve unity while preserving cultural differences as well as the distinctiveness of nations and peoples. Such unity can be reached only by recognizing human values, especially human rights. However, these rights must be strictly determined and more than mere obligations. Hence, the most important task for philosophy is to develop foundations and principles for a world society and to formulate a global consciousness and a humanistic worldview that adequately reflects the realities of our epoch. Our action must increasingly be based on an acknowledgment of global values.”3
This evidence that human activities influence the global climate system continues to accumulate. Data indicate that Earth’s surface temperature is rising. This increase can be attributed, in part, to human-caused increases in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. It is becoming apparent that these climatic changes are negatively affecting physical and biological systems worldwide, Charles H. Southwick 4 well known ecologist argues that how we as humans affect global ecosystems and how these changes impact our health, behavior, economics and politics.
Winfried K. Rudloff, Governors State University suggests, “On one hand, globalization in science and education is rapidly taking place on account of the World Wide Web and the Internet. On the other hand, such high technology-based education is still in its infancy and mostly concerned with run-of-the-mill subjects that lack focus on urgent global problems. Specifically, most urgent problems such as resource depletion, environmental pollution, over-population, deforestation, the Greenhouse Effect, unchecked militarism, and rampant nuclear proliferation are studied to provide our students with a better understanding of the complexity of these interrelated issues. They should learn how to analyze problems of global importance and find creative solutions. After all, they are the generation of the future which they have to shape through knowledge and state-of-the-arts skills.”5
Solutions of global problems as suggested by most of the Secular Humanists to upholding and strengthening International law, application of the rule of law in combating terrorism, promoting secular values, laws and constitutions worldwide, asserting the rights of children to be free of religious indoctrination, rational solutions to global problems based on international cooperation, strengthening of the ‘Kyoto Agreement’ to provide an international carbon tax and the voice against unilateral pre-emptive military action, the policy of any country that seeks to promote a sectarian religious agenda, policies based on the presumption of religious superiority, theocracies of any kind, be they Judaic, Christian or Islamic.
A. Nagraj (Amarkantak) argues in his ‘human centric’ philosophy ‘Madhayatha Darshan Sahastitvavad’6that physical-material, plant/pranic, animal orders are in the system (like cyclical/avartansheel) but the human beings are unable to fulfill their relationships with each other. The relationships among the material, pranic/plants and animal orders are mutually fulfilling and mutually enriching and this process is cyclic in nature. Right understanding of Nature and human being will be necessary to fulfill the relationship with all these orders. He further argues that the whole of existence is in the form of co-existence, as units submerged in space. Each unit is in self-organization within itself and fulfils its relationship with all other units. Every unit is reflected onto every other unit. There is harmony in existence. It means that no one has to create the harmony; it is already available/exists. One only needs to understand existence and align oneself with it. By unders
tanding these processes in nature human being can be fulfilling to remaining three orders. All the three orders are fulfilling their relationship with human being. Subsequently Human being must organize their life style to fulfill these three orders.
Socio-political, economic and personal choices must be based on the laws of physics (natural laws) in order to be in harmony with Earth and the human life. This basic principle was clearly recognized by Karl-Henrik. He further argues in his article ‘Educating A Nation: The Natural Step’ that “It also happens that nearly all of our natural resources have been created by cells. Over billions of years, a toxic stew of inorganic compounds has been transformed by cells into mineral deposits, forests, fish, soil, breathable air and water – the very foundation of our economy and of our healthy existence. With sunlight as the sole energy supply, those natural resources have been created in growing, self-sustaining cycles – the “waste” from one species providing nutrition for another. The only processes that we can rely on indefinitely are cyclical; all linear processes must eventually come to an end. For roughly the past hundred years, humans have been disrupting the cyclical processes of nature at an accelerating pace. All human societies are, in varying degrees, now processing natural resources in a linear direction.” 7
Sometimes the scientific predictions are uncertain due to the complexity of an issue. What can be said about the present state of the world? Human civilization is endangered by anthropogenic environmental degradation, and by destructive social and individual conflicts. Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans.8 Scarcity of resources from the environment — be it clean air, water, food, energy, or land — leads to violent conflicts within nations, and to war and terrorism between nations9. Rwanda, the Sudan, and the Middle East demonstrate how violent conflicts emerge indirectly from an ecological deficit. Already today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. Taken together, the ecological footprint of all nations in the year 2001 is some 20% bigger than the ecological capacity of the Earth 10.
A collapse of civilization is possible through nuclear weapons, and through loss of vital environmental resources. The current human activities are worsening the situation. Security once depended on military strength of a nation. The advent of nuclear weapons has ended this option; now military might lead to mutual assured destruction, and therefore the resolution of conflicts by the rule of international law has become a necessity.
The use of fossil fuels has advanced technology-based civilization to unprecedented levels. However today, we begin to realize that the consequences of our energy choices may lead to climate change, and the demise of fossil fuel based civilization.
Long term systemic thinking and appropriate action at the global and local levels are urgently needed for achieving sustainability, and civility in the world community. Sustainability is the overarching issue; it rests on three pillars: ecological, societal, and personal integrity.
Billions of human beings on the Earth are unhappy due to their inability to satisfy their basic personal needs (physiological needs, safety and security needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs) as defined by A. Maslow.11 Maslow has been a very inspirational figure in personality theories. In the 1960’s in particular, people were tired of the reductionistic, mechanistic messages of the behaviorists and physiological psychologists. They were looking for meaning and purpose in their lives, even a higher, more mystical meaning. Maslow was one of the pioneers in that movement to bring the human being back into psychology and the person back into personality! At approximately the same time, another movement was getting underway, one inspired by some of the very things that turned Maslow off: computers and information processing, as well as very rationalistic theories such as Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Noam Chomsky’s linguistics.
In fact, every man wants to live with perennial happiness and prosperity. Almost all human efforts and time are spent in order to ensure physical (material) facilities. The inherent presumption behind this effort is that physical facilities will ensure interrupted happiness. If we look into this presumption, what appears is that in case of lack of physical facilities one feels unhappy. But it is well known that having enough of physical facilities cannot ensure continuity of happiness. Thus it becomes essential to address to the need of happiness and physical facilities separately. Consequently, one must understand happiness, physical facilities and the inter-relation between these two needs.
Well known scientist Carl Sagan in his widely acclaimed television series “The Nuclear Winter” (1983), explored the unforeseen and devastating physical and chemical effects of even a small-scale nuclear war on the earth’s biosphere and life on earth. War and terrorism within and between nations is a critical global issue. An all-out nuclear war causing a nuclear winter would be a catastrophe for humankind; it would not only create social chaos, but also ruin the life-supporting ecosystem beyond repair4. It is now almost 40 years since the invention of nuclear weapons. We have not yet experienced a global thermonuclear war — although on more than one occasion we have come tremulously close. I do not think our luck can hold forever. Men and machines are fallible, as recent events remind us. Fools and madmen do exist, and sometimes rise to power. Concentrating always on the near future, we have ignored the long-term consequences of our actions. We have placed our civilization and our species in jeopardy. Healthy ecosystems are the major supplier of vital resources to humans. Lester Brown says in ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble.’ “Our global civilization today is on an economic path that is environmentally unsustainable, a path that is leading us toward economic decline and eventual collapse.” 12
“Environmental scientists have been saying for some time that the global economy is being slowly undermined by environmental trends of human origin, including shrinking forests, expanding deserts, falling water tables, eroding soils, collapsing fisheries, rising temperatures, melting ice, rising seas, and increasingly destructive storms,” 6. Thelinks between environmental change and acute conflict will help us to evaluate our theory of environmental change and its contribution to conflict. Scarcity of resources from the environment (clean air, water, food, energy, land etc.) leads to violent conflicts within nations, and to war and terrorism between nations.13 Neomalthusians have argued that global environmental change leads to scarcities of resources that could lead to societal collapse. Somalia, Rwanda, and Haiti serve as poster children for such arguments. 14
We can imagine the seriousness o
f the problem, today, 150 major nations of the world show an ecological deficit. Taken together, the ecological footprint of all nations in the year 2001 is some 20% bigger than the ecological capacity of the Earth. “Moderate UN scenarios suggest that if current population and consumption trends continue, by the mid 2030s we will need the equivalent of two Earths to support us. And of course, we only have one”. 15
A poll survey report published in Washington Post‘Mass Extinction Underway, Majority of Biologists Say’ “A majority of the nation’s biologists are convinced that a mass extinction of plants and animals is underway that poses a major threat to humans in the next century. The rapid disappearance of species was ranked as one of the planet’s gravest environmental worries, surpassing pollution, global warming and the thinning of the ozone layer.”16
A human monoculture without the support of other species is not viable. Anthropogenic, human caused mass extinction of species is a threat to human survival17. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment project reports on the loss of species in the last 30 years of the 20th century. 18
Humanism – historical overview
Before discussing the role of the Humanism and developing Human consciousness-values for solving the global problem facing human society, we have to overview the historical and conceptual development of the human society and its discourse in these regards.
Humanism has its roots over 2,500 years ago, when philosopher and thinkers in Greece, China and India formulated the idea than humankind alone is responsible for its own good, welfare and development. In the 1480s, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote a preface to the nine hundred-page theses that he submitted for public debate entitled ‘An Oration on the Dignity of Man’. Founder of Renaissance humanism was Petrarch who was also known as the “father of humanism.” The crisis of Renaissance humanism came with the trial of Galileo, which was centered on the choice between basing the authority of one’s beliefs on one’s observations, or upon religious teaching. The root of the conflict was the Biblical teaching that “The truth will set you free” After and during the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, these ideas were revived and developed by Descartes, Diderot, David Hume, Thomas Paine, Voltaire, Mary Wollstonecraft etc. The growth of realistic knowledge about science, geology, astronomy and evolution in the 18th and 19th centuries showed that there was no need for religious and orthodox explanation of the various phenomenons and process of Nature. This opened the way to a coherent view of how natural processes led to the development of the human species. In the 19th century Jeremy Bentham, Marie and Pierre Curie, Charles Darwin, George Eliot, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Hardy, T H Huxley, Robert G Ingersoll, John Stuart Mill, P B Shelley etc. and 20th century A J Ayer, Richard Dawkins, E M Forster, Julian Huxley, Nehru, Claire Rayner, Gene Roddenberry, Bertrand Russell have campaigned for the rights of nonreligious people, and Developed organisations and ceremonies which provide for their values and beliefs. Modern Humanism has evolved further during the 20th century which is promoted and supported by thousands Humanistic national and international organisations.
Humanist Values and Beliefs
Humanist Manifesto I (1933), Humanist Manifesto II (1973) and Humanist Manifesto III (2003) laying out a Humanist worldview. The central theme of all three is the elaboration of a philosophy and value system, which does not necessarily include belief in any personal deity or “higher power,” although the three differ considerably in their tone, form, and ambition. Each has been signed at its launch by various prominent academics and others who are in general agreement with its principles.
Humanists believe that morality is based on human nature, human society and human experience; it has not come from a god or any supernatural entity. Humanists believe that moral values stem from the human need for happiness and the fact that we must live co-operatively together. They believe that there is no evidence for life after death, and so humanists place a special value on this life and on making the best of it. They do not expect justice in another life, and so work for justice in this one. Humanists try to follow the ‘Golden Rule’ treat other people, as you would like them to treat you, avoid harming others. Humanists value all human beings, celebrating both our common humanity and shared values, and the diversity of human culture. Prejudices based on race, gender, nation or belief should not be allowed to separate or discriminate human. Humanists believe that humans alone are responsible for sustaining and improving our quality of life. Humanism is based on reason, not faith their views of the universe do not depend on a belief in God or Gods. Humanists are agnostic because they think that we cannot know whether God exists or not. Because there is no evidence for the existence of God or for an after-life, humanists live their lives as atheists, and find other reasons for living good lives. Humanists do not have sacred texts, traditions, dogma, prophets, or any source of authority other than human experience. Humanists look for evidence before they believe things and like to think for themselves. Humanists believe that knowledge best advances through openness and cooperation, through experiment and observation, and through free enquiry and discussion. Humanists accept that science provides the best available explanations for the existence of the universe and life on earth. Humanists do not believe that the universe or earth was created by God.
All individuals should have a right to self-determination. Furthermore, they should have freedom of choice and freedom to develop their own values and lifestyle, as long as they do not deny the same rights to others. Society should restrict an individual’s liberties only in accordance with social needs in a democratic process. Therefore, tolerance and respect of others becomes another of the basic moral principles. The right to self-determination, however, necessitates personal responsibility and moral growth through education and rational, critical inquiry. Humanism is the intellectual formulation of the recognition of universal morality in a global society with all its freedoms and obligations. Humanism is the moral philosophy concerned with the reality available to us through reason and scientific inquiry. It is an open-ended process that provides answers to human problems.
However, cultural and physical Anthropology categorizes ‘Humans’ in terms of race or ethnicity, and on the basis of differences in appearance. The term race or racial group usually refers to the categorisation of humans into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of heritable characteristics.19 old racial categories were based on externally visible traits, primarily skin color, features of the face, and the shape and size of the head and body, and the underlying skeleton.
The human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color, cranial or facial features and hair texture), and self-identification. People often use physical characteristics such as these–along with area of geographic origin and shared culture–to group themselves and others into “races.” But how valid is the concept of race from a biological s
tandpoint? Do physical features reliably say anything informative about a person’s genetic makeup beyond indicating that the individual has genes for blue eyes or curly hair? 19, 20 we can say that all human beings belong to a single ‘Homo sapiens’, and share a common descent.
Regardless of the medical implications of the genetics of race, the research findings are inherently exciting. For hundreds of years, people have wondered where various human groups came from and how those groups are related to one another. They have speculated about why human populations have different physical appearances and about whether the biological differences between groups are more than skin deep. New genetic data and new methods of analysis are finally allowing us to approach these questions. The result will be a much deeper understanding of both our biological nature and our human interconnectedness.20
The patterns of human genetic variation, however, correspond poorly with visible morphological differences.21 Most current genetic and archaeological evidence supports a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. 22 Current genetic studies have demonstrated that humans on the African continent are most genetically diverse.23 However, various studies by Am. J. Hum. Genet (2005), Bamshad M, Wooding S, Salisbury BA, Stephens JC (2004), Tishkoff SA, Kidd KK (2004) have indicated that compared to many other animals, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous.24, 25, 26, 27 Ethnic groups are more often linked by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, and national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact social identity, giving rise to racism and the theory of identity politics. Hence the question of equality can be solved on the basis of constitutional provision in all democratic states.
However Observations and recommendations regarding race and genetics by the National Human Genome Center of Howard University28 are “when the human species is viewed as a whole, underlying genetic variation and expressed physical traits exhibit gradients of differentiation, not discrete units. Therefore, modern extant humans do not fracture into races (subspecies) based on the modern phylogenetic criteria of molecular systematics. The biological “boundaries” between any human divisions (groups, populations, nationalities) are circumstantial and largely dependent on what traits are chosen for emphasis.”
Hence the question of equality and understanding the natural system can be solved on the basis of constitutional provisions, which are the part of the governance of the democratic states. The role of the global society must be considered.
Global Civil society
Chief Editor of the International Journal of Sociology François Houtart says “the debate on the limits, possibilities and opportunities facing civil society today is an open one. The issue was discussed during the World Social Forum in January in Porto Alegre, Brazil, which brought together spokespeople and representatives of civil society around the world.”
The concept of civil society is very fashionable at the moment. It is so widely accepted as to allow all kinds of interpretations, while at the same time covering all kinds of ambivalences. When the World Bank talks of civil society it is referring to a completely different reality than the one expressed by the Thai Poor People’s Forum or the Brazilian Movement of Landless Peasants using the same term. It is necessary to analyze this term away from the slogans. Civil society is the arena for social struggles and thus for defining collective challenges, but before reflecting on how to build it we should first take a close look at the different ways the concept is currently interpreted.
Global civil society represents the potentialof transnational civil society to enhance democracy in globalgovernance. Numerous works are devoted to the role of new ideas,norms, and discourse of transnational advocacy networks 29,30,31.The development of transnational networks may help to createnew identities and awareness ofglobalsociety that would improvethe current discriminatory codes and practices based on establishedpolitical boundaries. Richard Price32implies that research into transnational civil society tendsto overemphasize the effect of particular campaigns that aspireto liberal and progressive moral change and to downplay the‘bad’ or failed campaigns. In a similar vein, Chris Brown33suggests that the pitfall of the global civil society scholarshipis to assume that transnational advocacy networks would providea panacea for world ills and represent the universal valuesof the human race.
Then, what factors contribute to the achievement ofglobal civilsociety, lest we fall for versions of cosmopolitan idealism?Those who turn to history as well as theory suggest that thebirth ofglobal civil society could occur only in the furtherdevelopment and maturation of civil society. John Keane34 argues that ‘so-called domestic civil societies andthe emerging global civil society are normally linked togetherin complex, cross-boarder patterns of looped and re-looped circuitry’.The normative divide between domestic and global civil societiesis nationalism, a collective sense of unity based on the culturaltradition and the recognized existence of a nation in a particularregion. However, according to Edward Shills35, civil societyis sustained by national collective self-consciousness becauseits normative basis is a collective willingness to accept thelegitimacy of the law and of authority, which enhances pluralityof interests and ideals. Thus, nationalism is also an importantvehicle for global civil society. Doak’s work on liberalnationalism is especially relevant here. He argues that internationalismand nationalism are interconnected (rather than mutually exclusive)because both require the existence of the state at least inthe realm of imagination. Internationalism, which he describesas liberal nationalism, ‘upholds the principle of cooperationbetween states (and between the state and international organizations),finding in them a means of evaluating social norms that do notviolate human rights, even while protecting the special rightsof citizens’36. Thus, there is no globalcivil society without a shared sense of national community.
The relationship between nationalism and internationalism issimilar to that between civil society and global civil s
ociety.As civil society embraces civil and grassroots activities andthe sustained participation of people in communal affairs, globalcivil society also involves activities of autonomous individualsin the pursuit of pluralism. Like civil society that ‘mustbe understood in relation to the state’, if not in ‘oppositionto it’ (Schwartz)37 (emphasis in original), theconceptofglobal civil society can exist beside a sense ofbelonging to a nation or a state. What is significant aboutglobal civil society is that it leads to rising above parochialinterests and encourages the development of a cosmopolitan worldcitizenship beyond national boundaries. In other words, globalcivil society does not surrender its respect for every humanexistence to the supremacy of a particular state and nation.In this sphere, ‘the citizen is a proud creature, readyto stand up for basic values of the open society, ready to goto battle for them if need be’38.Thus, it comprises a cosmopolitan dimension that indicates ashared vision of the world, which provides the rights and dignitiesof the individuals.
A. Nagraj propounded Madhyastha Darshan, which is basically a human centric philosophy. At its core is the co-existentialism. Nagraj ji has elucidated on the harmony and balance in the human conduct as well as in natural phenomenon. He has proposed some guidelines (Human conducts) for the humanity that is known as Manviya Samvidhan (human constitution). Keeping human being in the focus, based on human mental faculties he has presented a number of sutras that are of very high value for establishment of universal human order. These sutras enlighten the path to the solutions of present day problems. It shows to the humanity a way for satisfied, prosperous, fearless and co existential life.++
3. Alexander Chumakov, Human Values: The Key to Solving Global Problems (Abstract), The Proceedings of the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy (1998), Alan M. Olson (Editor)
Charles H. Southwick, Global Ecology In Human Perspective, Oxford University Press, 1996
Winfried K. Rudloff, Global Issues and Integrative Education, Published in “Adv. In Educ., Vol III”, pp. 1-6, Ed. George Lasker, IIAS Publication, Windsor, Canada 2000.
A. Nagraj, Samadhanatmak bhautikvad, Jeevan Vidya Prakashan (1998)
Gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2003. ‘Environmental Conflict: Neomalthusians vs. Cornucopians’, in Hans Günter Brauch, ed., Security and the Environment in the Mediterranean: Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts. Berlin: Springer (477–485).
AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race American Association of Physical Anthropologists “Pure races do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past.”
Bamshad, Michael and Steve E. Olson. “Does Race Exist?”, Scientific American Magazine (10 November 2003).
Royal C, Dunston G (2004). “Changing the paradigm from ‘race’ to human genome variation”. Nat Genet 36 (11 Suppl): S5–7.
Jorde L, Watkins W, Bamshad M, Dixon M, Ricker C, Seielstad M, Batzer M (2000). “The distribution of human genetic diversity: a comparison of mitochondrial, autosomal, and Y-chromosome data”. Am J Hum Genet 66 (3): 979–88.
“The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research”. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77 (4): 519–32. October 2005.
Bamshad M, Wooding S, Salisbury BA, Stephens JC (August 2004). “Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race”. Nat. Rev. Genet. 5 (8): 598–609.
Tishkoff SA, Kidd KK (November 2004). “Implications of biogeography of human populations for ‘race’ and medicine”. Nat. Genet. 36 (11 Suppl): S21–
7.
Summary of the observations and recommendations included in the National Human Genome Center position statement on race and genetics by Charles N. Rotimi in Understanding and Using Human Genetic Variation Knowledge in the Design and Conduct of Biomedical Research. (2007).
Keck, Margaret and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press.
Higgott, Richard, Geoffrey Underhill, and Andreas Bieler. 2000. Non-State Actors and Authority in the Global System. London: Routledge.
O’Brien, Robert, Anne Marie Goetz, Jan Aart Scholte, and Marc Williams. 2000. Contesting Global Governance: Multilateral and Global Social Movements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Price, Richard. 2003. ‘Transnational Civil Society and Advocacy in World Politics.’ World Politics 55 (July):
Brown, Chris. 2000. ‘Cosmopolitanism, World Citizenship and Global Civil Society.’ Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 3(1): 7–26.
Keane, John. 2001. ‘Global Civil Society?’ In Global Civil Society 2001, eds. Helmut Anheier, Marlies Glasius, and Mary Kaldor. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 23–47.
Shils, Edward. 1995. ‘Nation, Nationality, Nationalism and Civil Society.’ Nations and Nationalism 1(1): 93–118.
Doak. 2003. ‘Liberal Nationalism in Imperial Japan: The Dilemma of Nationalism and Internationalism.’ In Imperial Japan and National Identities in Asia, 1895–1945, eds. Li Narangoa and Robert Cribb. London and New York: Routledge Curzon: 17–41.
Schwartz, Frank J. 2003. ‘What Is Civil Society?’ In The State of Civil Society in Japan, eds. Frank J. Schwartz and Susan J. Pharr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 23–41.
Dahrendorf, Ralf. 1997. After 1989: Morals, Revolution and Civil Society. St. Antony’s Series. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Why a new approach for the development of India’s farmers is needed Although India is rapidly transforming itself into an open, more efficient and rapidly developing market-driven economy, in rural areas such transition has been lacking or progressing painfully slow for most farmers. Marginalized and small farmers in particular are unable to escape the powerful grip and dependence on middlemen, informal lenders and other intermediaries. Although there have been several attempts to assist farmers in escaping from their poverty trap, the results have been disappointing. Loan and grant schemes, if at all they reach the individual farmers, do not have the desired effect as these schemes do not tackle the core problems of dependence of the farmers, which brought them in poverty in the first place. As a result, most loan and grant schemes are in effect only patching solutions rather than a structural solution.
Other attempts have been focused on strengthening the farmer’s position by organizing them in self-help groups, in cooperatives or other forms. These interventions have been more successful in breaking the farmer’s dependency on intermediaries, but their success and failure are mainly determined by their leadership and/or continued government intervention.
Only exceptional examples exist where these farmer groups have been able to move up the value addition chain, become fully self-sustainable without (too much) political interference. At present in India, about 4% of its total employees are working in cooperatives, but comes at a annual cost of 780.000.000.000 RS to match the losses and investments of the cooperatives. Every single Indian is paying RS 780 per year to sustain the cooperative system, without realistic prospects to turn them into healthy businesses. Apart from the disappointing, and costly results, the heavy government support to such groups creates an additional problem of local market distortion: investments are not made on the basis of healthy business opportunities and creates once again dependency on external support. It also results in unfair competition towards new private investments / companies that wish to set-up viable businesses in similar sectors, but which have no access to similar (seemingly) unlimited, free financial support from government.
As a result the rural population at large and the small and marginal farmers in particular, hardly benefit from the development of India’s modern, urban-based economy. A new tripartite partnership to move farmers up the economic chain With support from private investors, originating from successful business families, a new approach for advancement of small and marginal farmers is now being tested in India and other countries. This approach is an attempt to find a critical entry point for rural development by concentrating on setting-up healthy agro-businesses in which farmers themselves gradually gain economic ownership, supported by both NGOs and experienced private entrepreneurs.
Similar to the self-help groups and cooperatives, the aim is to set-up healthy business in handling, processing and trading farmer’s commodities on a commercial basis. The main difference of the new approach is that the farmers, along with a social-conscious corporate partners, become equal business partners of the investor. The farmers will only gain full economic ownership, once the investment is repaid fully. No paternalistic form of aid, but a sound economic partnership between an investor and a (farmer-owned) company, supported by experience entrepreneurs.
Fostering Farmer ‘s Organisation with Business Rigour – V. Nov 2009 2/4
Along with a corporate business partner, the farmers are to set up a commercially-run business (a joint venture in the form of a private limited), based on a solid feasibility and business plan. This farmer-run joint venture enters into a loan agreement with (social) investors and becomes responsible for setting-up and running the business in a commercially responsible manner. The joint venture is to generate sufficient profit to: i) meet its loan obligations, ii) capitalize the company, iii) pay premium prices to the farmers who supplied produce and/or iv) invest in new profitable business ventures (allowing the farmer to move further up the value-addition chain). As a result, the farmers benefit in the form of good and assured prices for their commodities and possibly additional premium or dividend payments if sufficient profit is realized.
In such partnership, the (social) investor, the social conscious entrepreneurs and the farmers become mutual depend business partners. Whereas the financial risk is to remain largely by the (social) investor, the farmers have most interest in making the business a success for their own future and village/region.
Some of the guiding principles behind the projects where the new model is being tested, are:
⇒ Invest in profitable agro-business ventures – set up farmer-owned businesses, based on professional feasibility analysis and business plans.
⇒ Farmers: equal business partners – farmers are not merely ‘beneficiaries’ or ‘the target group’, instead they are an equal business partner of their private business partner(s) and investor
⇒ Loan, no free money – the investment required is brought in by a private business partner, driven by its social corporate responsibility, rather than by its profit seeking objectives, but is to be repaid to sustain the model.
⇒ Farmer ownership – as repayments are made on the investments, the economic ownership of the company is automatically transferred to the farmer groups.
⇒ Continued strategic guidance by professional/business partners – whereas farmers are to gain 100% economic ownership over the business, and they are to be represented in the governing body (Board of Directors), the majority of the BoD will remain professional or business partners, to ensure that the long-term interest of the company and continued strategic guidance is secured.
⇒ Invest, but also plough back profits – While investing in higher value-addition processing, the model is intended to plough back part of the profits to the farmers and into new economic activities in the region.
⇒ Collective action to save time, energy & money
⇒ Improve bargaining position
Aim of the new approach
The aim of the new approach is to create a profitable partnership between investors and farmer groups, by setting up joint agro-processing enterprises, based on solid feasibility studies and business plans. The new agro-businesses are to become sufficiently profitable and economically independent from further external support. The value-addition created is used, among others, to repay the investment to the investor and, at the same time, transfer the economic ownership to the farmer groups. To avoid that the management of the agrobusiness is driven by the short-term benefits for the farmers (main draw-back of the cooperative model), the majority of the board members (who appoint and oversee the daily management) is to remain with professionals, rather than farmer representatives only. The economic ownership of the companies however, can be fully transferred to the farmer groups. By doing so, the long-term success and profitability of the company prevails in running the business.
As most of the investment is to be repaid and will be re-invested in new farmer businesses, the model becomes self-perpetuating. In addition, the model creates no market distortion or unfair competition. Instead, farmers become equal an fair business partners, boosting their pride & confidence as well as commitment to fulfill their financial obligation to its supporting business partner/investor.
Fostering Farmer ‘s Organisation with Business Rigour – V. Nov 2009 3/4
⇒ Take out intermediaries – e.g. the middlemen or informal lenders.
⇒ Overcome difficulties of farmers in handling & logistics – e.g. inaccessibility and transportation, especially in undulating terrains, leads to excessive wastage. Collectively, the farmers can more easily organize solutions or obtain external support (e.g. From (local) government or private sector).
Limitations of the present legal forms of farmer collectives In India, the most popular form of legal structures for farmer groups are cooperatives, producer companies and self-help groups. Contrary to Private Limiteds, where wealth creation for a selected few prevails, these forms of collectives are designed to make farmers stronger and protect them from exploitation by middle men or other buyers. Most cooperatives, farmer companies and self-help groups are considered successful if this objective is met. There are only rare cases however, where these collectives are selfsustainable, let alone grow and flourish, similar to healthy private limited firm. The two most important reasons for this limited success are i) political/government interference and ii) the fact that the daily management is directly appointed by the farmers. As a result, the managers are often forced to have the short-term interest of (selected) farmers prevail, instead of the long-term economic health of the business. The absence of such business rigour and professional management often hampers the businesses to flourish over a sustained period. It is in this context that this new model of farmer ownership through a partnership of (social) investor and farmers is now being tested. The business rigor of a private firm is combined with the distribution of benefits and rural economic development objectives.
Background of promotor
The new business approach to help small and marginal farmers, originates from a Dutch private foundation. This foundation was created by a successful business family, who started as small vendors on local markets in Holland. The self-made business flourished and the family expanded their business to various sectors. Over time, the business expanded to various successful chains of stores all over the country, and new business opportunities were taken on board, from drug stores to real estate. Part of the family capital has been allocated to a development fund, which aims to help poor families in rural areas of developing countries. It does so, by providing them with opportunities to collectively build up successful business ventures through honest, hard work and wise investments, which would allow them to flourish and become economically independent.
Fostering Farmer ‘s Organisation with Business Rigour – V. Nov 2009 4/4
Micro vs meso credit… loan vs grant
This new business approach towards development, whereby the farmers and investors become equal business partners, has a lot in common with the well-known micro-credit schemes.
The main difference is the scale of the credit and the debtors:
Micro – credit
o Debtor is individual (family)
o Credit is limited amount
o Individual contract
New approach
o Debtor is collective group of farmers
o Credit can be significant volumes (typically between
€20.000 to €1.5 million)
o Elaborate institutional ownership and loan arrangements, to protect both investor and individual farmers. At present, the approach is tested as a combination between a grant and loan component of the project. The loan component is meant for all hardware investments and initial running cost of the commercial business. The grant component is utilized for the assessment of the business opportunity, to write a good business plan and for external organizations (NGOs) to inform & organize farmers and guide them through the process How to ensure the farmers are the real beneficiaries?
In order to translate the above ideas and principles into reality and have the farmers benefit from the new approach, it essential to properly organize the farmers.
Some critical aspects to consider in this respect are:
�� Membership open for small and marginal farmers
�� Farmer participation in a democratic control body
�� The Farmer organizations are to be autonomous and independent bodies
�� Trading in high & reliable quality goods
�� Proper, transparent price settings, based on actual, prevailing market prices and cost incurred
�� Political and religious neutrality
�� Education, training and information to improve (quality of) yield & profitability
�� Trading by immediate payment to the farmers
�� Concern for the community
In addition, the legal arrangements of the farmer organization, the new companies and the transfer of ownership and oversight are to be properly worked out, taking into account prevailing local legislation and available legal entities. Separate papers are (to become) available on legal arrangements per project per country.
Critical aspects to consider are:
�� Legal form of the farmer organization (e.g. association, trust or other form)
�� Legal form of the joint venture (e.g. private limited)
�� Initial share value and distribution among farmer organization, investor and/or other (private) caretakers
�� Principles behind possible transfer of shares
�� Type of shares are rights
�� Initial and eventual composition of supervisory body, e.g. Board of Directors
�� Profit distribution based on supply
�� Common understanding of the corporate principles.
Conclusion
The new approach, now being tested, is a collective action between financing institutions, farmers, NGOs, private entrepreneurs and government in order to compete & flourish in an open market, with the benefits flowing back to the farmers.
Energy has become a crucial sector of the modern society, so much so that per capita availability of energy is considered as an indicator of economic prosperity. However, the social, economic and environmental impacts of demand/supply of energy are so great that only a holistic and objective consideration of all the related issues will enable the formulation of a sustainable and effective national policy. In this context an objective review of the recommendations of Integrated Energy Policy (IEP) document, as developed by Planning Commission of India, is considered essential from the society’s perspective. In this critique it is noted that while there are many good recommendations in IEP, an objective review will indicate that IEP has projected huge growth (about 5 times from the present level) in the installed/ production capacity of various conventional energy sources by 2031-32 ignoring the huge negative impacts of such a growth on our society. Unfortunately, IEP has implicitly or explicitly adapted the GNP maximizing paradigm to estimate energy demand rather than trying to estimate what is the least amount of energy needed to wipe out poverty, and how best to meet it in a sustainable manner. It is because of GNP maximizing paradigm that IEP has projected a huge annual demand growth for electricity between now and 2031-32.
Despite an enormous increase in the installed capacity since independence about 40% of our households are denied electricity, and even the other 60% are not getting quality supply. Whereas there will be unsustainable pressure on natural resources of our society associated with a huge growth projection, the long term impacts of the same on the vulnerable sections of our society including the fragile environment and bio-diversity have not even been discussed. In this context alone the IEP as a policy document has failed to meet the expectations of a welfare society. But what we need is a totally different and Indian cultural biased approach, similar to the one which was recommended by Prof. Amulya Kumar Reddy way back in mid 80s. As a national policy IEP has failed to consider the welfare of all sections of our society on a holistic/ sustainable basis.
In view of the social, economic and environmental impacts of fossil fuels, and their limited availability, the country is in urgent need of a paradigm shift in the way it views the energy sector as whole. The past policy of looking at supply side economics only should be changed to a holistic approach of minimising the total energy requirements while ensuring equitable development of all sections. The legitimate demand for energy must be objectively considered in the correct context of greater needs of the society such as clean air, water and healthy food, and the inescapable limits of the nature in supporting such a demand. In this regard it becomes obvious that the conservation and enhancement of our environment and bio-diversity must not be compromised in order to meet the unabated demand for energy. Within the energy sector, there is a critical need to: clearly differentiate our needs from wants/luxuries; recognize the fact that fossil fuels are fast running out; focus on improving the energy efficiency to international best practice levels; effectively deploy all the alternatives available to meet the legitimate demand; and harness the renewable energy sources to the optimum extent.
In view of local environmental issues and Global Warming impacts of fossil fuels, it is right time to lean towards alternate energy sources such as solar, biomass, wind and other renewable sources on a decentralized basis rather than through centralised large size units. Decentralized systems will reduce transmission and distribution losses, and would also help in reducing the unacceptable levels of urban-rural disparity prevailing in power distribution. In view of the Global Warming impacts on our densely populated society the usage of fossil fuels should be minimised in the short run and eliminated in the long run.
There is no escaping the need to recognize the limits of the nature in supporting the ever escalating demand for energy; acknowledge the fact that the energy security will not be feasible as long as we fail to effectively manage the demand, and as long as we rely heavily on external resources.
Electricity being a precious national resource, suitable tariff policies, including a feed-in-tariff for renewable energy sources, should be implemented urgently to heavily discourage its wastage, and to encourage very high efficiency in its local production and usage. Subsidized electricity supply to any category of consumers should be minimised, and if considered essential should be only through advance payment of one year’s subsidy amount by a State Government to the supply company. A comprehensive policy to encourage widespread usage of pubic transport systems should be implemented; usage of private vehicles should not be encouraged keeping in view the huge cost of fuel imports, road infrastructure constraints, and the pollution impacts; old and inefficient vehicles should be eliminated on a rigid time scale; adequate investment in railways should be taken up on a war footing.
International best practice level efficiencies must be adopted at all stages of energy cycle by 2020; AT&C losses should be brought down below 10% in each revenue district of the country; the PLF of each coal /nuclear power project should be improved to a minimum of 90%; efficiency of end use applications, including agricultural pump sets should be comparable with the international best practices.
Costs and Benefits Analysis (CBA), from a societal perspective, should become a part of the mandatory approval process for all new power projects. Most of the newly permitted coal power plants should come up on the sites of existing old/ inefficient power plants and should be of much higher overall efficiencies and with low pollution footprints.
There shall be no supply to any consumer without accurate metering beyond 2015. ‘Polluter pays principle’ is a novel idea put to practice with the desired effects in many parts of the world, and it is best applied at the stage of mining and electricity generation itself. A suitably designed carbon tax should be applied to each ton of coal, litre of diesel/petrol, kilo litre of water and kWh of energy produced/ consumed/ generated so as to minimise the use of these resources for commercial purposes by 2020.
The last man on the street OR the most vulnerable sections of the society should be at the centre of our energy policy to enable adequate human development of the entire society, instead of focusing on growth of GDP alone.
IEP’s projection that the total installed power generating capacity has to increase from about 160,000 MW to about 800,000 MW by 2031-32 will mean the addition of about 25,000 MW power capacity every year which is neither acceptable to the society because of huge implications nor feasible on the basis of what has been achieved in successive five year plans. IEP seem to have failed to take into account the impracticality of its recommendadtions.
IEP itself has many good recommendations such as focus on efficiency improvement, Demand Side Management(DSM), correct pricing of energy, R&D on alternative energy forms, equity in energy availability to the poor, Energy Service Companies (ESCO) etc.
In view of the huge influence of electricity sector on social, economic and environmental aspects of our society, much of the focus in this critique on IEP is on electricity sector. The main objective of the critique is not to comment on every issue raised in IEP, but to highlight the serious shortcomings in IEP; the impact of wrong policies on
the society and bio-diversity; and to recommend a sustainable, people friendly and environmentally friendly energy policy.
(please find detailed article at Read Full Article in PDF) Article by: Shankar Sharma Power Policy Analyst Doorvasapuram Post, Thirthahally Shimoga District, Karnataka – 577432
The gross inefficiency in power sector in India has economic and legal implications of serious nature, affecting the overall growth and welfare of the society. The inefficiency in the sector is considered to be one of the biggest stumbling blocks in societal development. Studies by International Energy Agency show that, by 2050, energy efficiency has the potential to be the biggest single source of GHG emission savings in the energy sector.
Installed electricity generating capacity in the country has grown phenomenally from about 1,400 MW in 1948 to about 157,000 MW in Feb 2010; an increase of 110 times. Annual electricity generation from all sources has increased from about 61,000 MU in 1970-71 to 724,000 MU in 2008-09 an increase of 12 times in 30 years. Despite such phenomenal increases in capacity since independence, about 40% of rural households are still deprived of electricity connection, and various forms of electricity crises are continuing even after 6 decades of self rule. Whereas the state capitals and larger cities in each state are getting electricity supply for 23 – 24 hours every day on average the villages are getting less than 12 hours on an average.
The inefficiency prevailing in transmission & distribution, and in the end use of energy in the country is so much that the Integrated Energy Policy has estimated that the energy intensity of our economy can be reduced by 25% by 2031-32. The usage of electricity for night time sports, air conditioned shopping malls/housing complexes even in cooler places, heavy usage of illumination for advertisements, unscientific use of illumination for street lights, avoidable & inefficient use of a large number of electrical and entertainment appliances, whether in houses, shops, offices, public places or factories are all escalating, but are also largely resulting in unproductive and non-essential applications.
The unreliable electricity supply has led to serious problems on the social, economic and environmental front whereas the relevant Acts of parliament are not being complied with. Very severe consequences are in the areas of drinking water, agricultural activities, education, health etc. not only in villages but also in many urban areas. People’s displacement is the most serious social implications of large conventional power projects.
As per the report of the 13th finance commission, due to inefficiency of operations the combined losses of electricity companies may increase from Rs. 68,643 crores in 2010-11 to Rs. 1,16,089 cores by 2014-15. Such huge losses year after year have led to deprivation of adequate funding to other crucial sectors of our developmental process such a drinking water supply, poverty alleviation, health, education, rural infrastructure etc. The ever increasing number of conventional power projects such as dam based, coal based and nuclear power projects, as a consequence of inefficiency in utilizing the existing electricity assets, are demanding large amounts of natural resources such as land, water, coal etc. and are adding huge amounts of pollutants to our environment.
The coal power plants demand large tracts of land and huge quantities of fresh water. They burn enormous quantity of coal and generate mountains of ash, and need opening up of a large number of additional coal mines, which are all below thick forests. The technical efficiency of converting coal energy to electrical energy in Indian power stations is about 30%, which is very low. With high level of losses in transmission, distribution end utilisation prevailing in the country, the overall efficiency in coal energy to electrical energy put into productive / economic use can be only of the order of about 10%.
Large dam based hydro power plants drown large tracts of agricultural and forest lands; produce Methane which is a much more potent GHG than CO2. They reduce forest and tree cover, and lead to loss of bio-diversity.
Nuclear power plants have their own share of concerns. The low reserve of Uranium as a fuel within the country, the massive damage to our environment from nuclear mining, the radiation safety issues, and the huge cost to the society of safeguarding the spent nuclear fuel for generations have all become major concerns to the society.
The country has been known to be exhibiting one of the lowest levels of efficiency in the overall management of a vital resource like electricity. The average Plant Load Factor (PLF) of the coal power stations in the country is reported to be about 63% as compared to about 90% in case of some of the best run power plants such as NTPC plants. The inability to optimize the installed capacity is not much different in nuclear power plants and hydel power plants.
As per the sections 48 (a) and 51 (a) (g) of our Constitution it is the duty of the STATE and every citizen to make honest efforts to protect and improve our environment by protecting and improving rivers, lakes, forests and living beings. The large number of avoidable conventional power plants, which are continuing to be planned and implemented, are destroying thick forest cover, severely interfering in the natural flow of rivers, and destroying /hastening the extinction of many species of bio-diversity. It is almost impossible to notice the compliance of the letter and spirit of Indian Electricity Act 2003, and National Electricity Policy as far as salient features such as efficiency, economy, responsible use of natural resources, consumer interest protection, reliable supply of electricity, protection of environment are concerned.
Whereas the National Forest Policy recommends that 33% of the land mass should be covered by forests and trees for a healthy environment, our practice of continuing to divert forest lands for large power projects will bring this percentage much below the present low level of 24% in the country.
The prevailing inefficiency will not allow the fulfillment of the stated objectives of National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) unless a commensurate action plan is implemented earnestly.
Whereas it will be impossible to satiate the ever escalating demand for electricity in our urban areas in the business as usual scenario, efficiency improvement of the existing electricity infrastructure to the international best practice levels can provide us with a virtual additional capacity roughly equivalent 30-40% of the present available capacity.
In the background of all these glaring issues, it would tantamount to letting down the public if the STATE continues to spend thousands of crores of rupees of the state’s revenue and precious natural resources in establishing large number of additional conventional power plants without harnessing all the techno-economically benign alternatives first. …………………………..
I have twice experienced big disillusionment in my life – with “the real socialism” and with the “real” democracy, as I grew up during the socialism, experienced the transition, and gradually realized that as far as the democracy exists it is actually imitation and fake. Maybe, I will witness the emerging failure of the Anglo-Saxon capitalism, which I rather call individualism or extreme individualism.
Today, I feel like we live in two fantasy novels at the same time: The Futurological Congress by Stanislav Lem and Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell. Realization of one suggested illusion is often prelude to another bitter one, and the reality increasingly looks like the one of Big Brother.
It is still unclear what will substitute the capitalism/individualism, and what will happen with the democratic ideas. Probably, the next utopia will be another negation of the previous one still keeping some of its elements.
Perhaps, it is utopian to hope that this time, finally, on the brink of ecological disaster, various social development projects will occur in different countries, and that the most efficient of them will gradually strengthen their position in a positive competition, rather than through hot or cold wars.
1. THE LOST ILLUSIONS FOR THE LAST 20 YEARS AFTER 1989
In 1989, with the end of the “real socialism” and the beginning of the transition to democracy and market economy, everything seemed clear. We believed in the democratic ideology and values. We assumed that we had finally understood the truth, and knew who was good and who was bad.
During the first years of the transition, I was a student at Sofia University, and would suck in all on social sciences from both media and newly published Western literature. I would go to the rallies of all parties and organizations in order to feel the atmosphere and their spirit. I would reinvent the new for the Bulgarian society ideas, including spiritual beliefs and God.
Not just words but a reality were democracy, human rights, freedom of speech and expression, rule of law, division of powers, transparency of the political governance, the supremacy and the lack of alternative of the market economy and capitalism, individualism, fairness of the world order, free and fair elections, independent and objective media and journalism (at least CNN and BBC), the power of civil society and NGOs, state sovereignty…
I believed that the democracy, which “may not be perfect but is the best political system ever invented“, could be achieved by those who sincerely sought it and diligently fulfilled the requirements of the most developed democracies, respectively of those organizations, which the latter led. I was happy with the successes of Bulgaria towards membership in both NATO and European Union, because we had many examples of countries that had achieved prosperity, stability and security as a result of those memberships.
Capitalist society and democracy were synonymous. The U.S. and allies sincerely wanted peace in the world and prosperity of all countries, and they sympathetically helped both emerging democracies and developing countries. They were strong, and dominated the world because of the superiority of their ideology, political and economic systems. The U.S.A.’s leaders were more reliable because they had been already rich when were elected, and the British secret services were the best in Europe. I thought that although the U.S. played the role of world’s policeman, any society needed police, and we were lucky that they themselves performed the job; because of both their democratic system and internal control by the civil society they could not abuse this role. The established democracies had outgrown the disadvantages of their imperial periods.
However, gradually I started seeing increasing discrepancies between words and media suggested, on the one hand, and reality – on the other. For Bulgarians, the events associated with the disintegration of former Yugoslavia, and especially with the affirmation and identity of the newly established country FYR Macedonia was like a litmus test. First I thought the biggest problems were caused by the Serbs and some individual Western countries allies of he U.S. as a historical recurrence due to deformations of their national psychology. Gradually, I realized that it was not about individual countries but about the system.
I myself wonder in which of the above mentioned I still believe now: perhaps, in spirituality and God? I also believe in humanity, morality and solidarity as the substructure of the society; however, I learned the latter from my family, my country’s culture and socialist ideology, even though I find the utopian as a whole.
2. THE WORLD IN APRIL 2010
The Macedonian Issue
The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is like a litmus test for the actual policy and values in today’s world for anyone, who is at least a little informed or get interested in and read something of the history of the Balkans. Macedonia is a vivid embodiment of the Orwellian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four.
As known, the country split from former Yugoslavia in 1991, and Bulgaria first recognized it. Currently, it is in involved in name dispute with Greece, and Macedonian version of history of both nation and state are disputed by both Greece and Bulgaria. Positions regarding the ethnic identity of the modern Macedonians are not very clear, and have shades, but hardly Bulgaria or Greece would deny the right of the Macedonians, as well as ones of any other people to identify themselves ethnically.
The problem is that for political reasons the Macedonians identify themselves based on falsified history, including their neighbours’ one, and that is seen as hostility, provocation, irritation and sowing future conflicts. A Big Brother’ sentence, which is fully true to Macedonia is that who possesses the past, they possesses the future too; who possesses the present, they possesses the past. That policy started during the former Yugoslavia, and then it was explained with the Serbian intentions to keep the Macedonians away from Bulgaria and cleave them to Serbia. However, it is going on nowadays, with some lucid moments of rapprochement between Macedonia and Bulgaria, for example at the time of the deceased Macedonian President Boris Trajkovski, who died tragically in a plane crash in 2004. By the way, there was nothing nationalistic or chauvinistic in this rapprochement from the Bulgarian side; it was in European spirit.
Any objective and honest observer could at least compare Macedonian versions / translations of historical documents and fiction with the originals, and see that “Bulgaria”, “Bulgarian” and their derivatives would be replaced by „Macedonia“, „Macedonian“, etc.
If today’s Macedonians want to be Macedonians and not Bulgarians or any other, nobody and nothing could stop them, even the fact that their ancestors had Bulgarian self-consciousness. What is the logic for the Macedonian leaders to care for this falsified and fake version of history instead of for the actual and real modern Macedonian identity? What is their benefit from it, especially given the dispute with Greece and barriers to Macedonian integration into NATO and the EU to which they aspire?
A more precise question, however, is why Anglo-Saxon countries, Germany and other, obviously encourage it if judging from the appearances of their officials, journalists and other citizens on Macedonian media, where they confidently explain to the Macedonians how much they are right in the dispute with Greece, and suggest they must be united and speak with one voice. The latter is often repeated by the Macedonian politicians too. Furthermore, they put tremendous pressure on Greece, even knowing that it is not that much about the name but about the Macedonian provocative and hostile interpretations of history.
At the same time, the most logical solution of Greek-Macedonian dispute is to show those falsified sources and the own historic documents and records of Britons, Americans, Germans, etc., and to suggest to the Macedonians that they can be whatever they want, but not on the basis of falsification.
Unfortunately, the logical explanation for not doing it is that the falsifications and „Macedonism“ (as in Bulgaria they call the Macedonian aggressive nationalism based on fake history and crooked historical interpretations hostile to the neighbours) are necessary for the above mentioned big countries themselves, and serve their (geo)political interests. In our country it is believed that the Macedonian nation was created by the Comintern in the 40s of the last century, with the participation of Bulgarian communists. However, given that the official Macedonian language is written up by Americans, and the latter’s more than controversial policy today, I wonder if it really happened that way.
Another paradox is that the media in Bulgaria do not show all this to the Bulgarians. While the Bulgarians as a whole know very well their history, and are aggrieved at and disappointed by the Macedonism, they are not aware of the attitude of their new allies on the Macedonian dispute, and therefore remain very positive about them.
Where are the correctives?
The democratic ideas still sound to me beautiful and attractive, but today’s reality makes me doubt in their practical feasibility. If there was democracy some time in the past, where is it today, when every election is manipulated by controlling public opinion and moods, at the same time formally declaring it as fair? In such case, of course, it is hard to speak about independent media, journalism and freedom of thought and speech. Could we suppose that during the past decades of democratic blossoming, the democracy was largely been only words, but then the Cold War and rivalry with the Soviet bloc and communism were to blame? Or maybe, there was more democracy, due to both fear of infiltration of communist influence and deterrent effect of the antagonist camp?
In the last century, the prosperity of the Western democracies was probably achieved thanks to pluralism, dualism, and if using a market term, to the absence of monopoly. It coincided, and largely is due to the existence of the Soviet Union and Soviet camp of countries, which formed a second pole. Two opposite poles, it is a normal and stable condition in the nature. When one of the poles dropped out, the other pole not only lost much of its motivation to have more acceptable for the people image, and really be better, but many of its shortcomings hypertrophied. Monopoly in politics proved as dangerous and harmful to ordinary people as the economic monopoly was. The democracy, the democratic society, the civil society, the political parties – each of those proved to be powerless as internal corrective.
So the most powerful countries and ruling circles were able to set whatever aims they want (or to pursue old ones), and use any means they could wish in order to achieve them, without anyone controlling them and being capable to stop them, and even without public understanding of what they actually were doing. While it is not inconceivable to suppose that once upon a time the rulers would think exactly what they would say, and there was less hypocrisy in the public space, nowadays, the words apparently only serve to conceal the real intentions and goals.
Besides the absence of equally powerful rival as a corrective, the development of ICT and psychology, respectively the techniques for mass influence, also contributed to that state.
Kingdom of individualism
A little over a hundred years ago, in his book To Chicago and Backwards , the Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov quoted the words of a Serbian immigrant in the U.S. that “dough is the queen“. However, in my opinion, the capitalism is a kingdom of the individualism. Money give much more individual freedom, enable the individual to be less dependent on a community and its norms, as well as on society and place, and therefore make them less accountable to others and less moral. “Money do not smell”; they not just allow a person to get almost everything they need, anywhere in the world, but also to influence people and institutions. Even if they might have been acquired in a queer manner inconsistent with our ideals of good and morality, they are capable of providing an image of integrity.
The real rulers, the “world rulers”, people with the money, influence and power are seeking for global governance through the leading countries. They may not necessarily be politicians; for the politicians it is just important to be good executors and public faces. Of course, as it is known that the U.S. presidents are usually wealthy people, emanating from a few family clans. The country of the unlimited opportunities is really such one for a particular range of people.
The right place for every rich man, who wants to become wealthier and has global ambitions is in those societies. The immigrants possessing lots of money are welcome there. The society as a whole also benefits, getting high life standard, which maintains the loyalty and attachment of the ordinary people, in addition to the normal human instincts of belonging to a community – yet no individual can be a lonely island, even though the British would say that about themselves by way of a joke.
Countries such as England and the U.S. prosper by attracting, in one or another way, of wealth – capital, natural and other resources, “brains”, and also through exporting their problems. For example, in recent decades, they export their environmental problems, respectively nature polluting industries.
Aggressiveness and false positivity
Aggressiveness is considered a good thing in the U.S. It is obvious in popular culture and films, and also I have heard it from an American Methodist pastor. I thought that actually the Americans meant activity and vigour, but later realized that they speaked literally. Being aggressive means to be a fighter, to attack your competitors, to weaken them in order to achieve success yourself. Meanwhile, this is something quite different from the Bulgarian culture, where people tend to wish on holidays “to be better”, or torment themselves on different unfortunate occasions that they are not good enough.
Perhaps, the history of aggressiveness can be traced back at least to the dawn of capitalism, when the British Empire managed to benefit from the higher aggressiveness of some of its nationals, benefited by sending prisoners away to America and Australia and by allowing the adventurers and rebels to travel overseas and conquer distant lands.
Both aggression and exploitation are the way of survival of those societies. At the same time, today’s Anglo-Saxon cultures consider themselves positively inclined, and have built a positivist image. They are considered optimistic, seeking opportunities above all and believing in ultimate success. However, is that positivity true: while seeing and looking for opportunities for yourself, preventing others from doing the same? It is rather destructiveness.
In this sense, the criticisms of the former communists that the capitalist system was exploitative and imperialistic were reasonable. It is another issue that the political alternative proposed by the former and being realized for some time, was not good and collapsed.
Managing the public opinion and the public mood
Perhaps, all the rulers of all times dreamed of what today’s rulers have achieved through the media, ICT and psychological techniques. In the past, they applied only physical violence but today they mainly rely on the more sophisticated methods.
The world rulers can control the mass consciousness in order to achieve their desired election outcomes, be it political or even cultural elections such as the “Eurovision Song Contest” (again for political purposes). The way they do it is similar to that in which consumers’ preferences and mood are moulded by the marketing.
The mental picture in our minds about the world we live in is a target of influence and modelling. For example, the media suggested ideas about the allocation of political forces or rival camps are not reliable because some already subject countries may be presented as opponents just for the sake of convenience, and then put in different scenarios similar to “good and bad cop”. How would any country agree to be treated that way? Unfortunately, today, each country can be conquered through a series of (pre-)election manipulations resulting with electing puppet politicians, who hold “reforms” until the key positions are occupied by their people. It seems to be a dangerous new virus, with which the societies have not faced in such a scale so far, and against which they do not have immunity.
The world rulers act globally, not recognizing borders and state sovereignty. They apply it to both countries proclaimed as undemocratic and evil and “friend” countries either new allies from the former Soviet bloc or ones of long standing from “Old Europe”; the small and weak countries, and the big developed countries which were once “great powers” may be equally hit. “England has no friends but has interests” is an old-time sentence.
With regard to enemies such interventions will be justified with imposing democracy and human rights, while in the case of “allies” – with corruption, breaking some rules … even being unlikable. Regarding the latter I mean Bulgaria, as it is not hard to notice that the media in different countries keep on publishing negative and tendentious articles about Bulgaria as it happened during the Cold War, at the same time skipping the good things. Bulgarians blame themselves for their poor image, but perhaps there are major political interests and objectives behind it. And we are certainly not worse than the others, so that is pure discrimination, indiscernible from racial one, anti-Semitism “or any other.
Technical societies
It seems that the world rulers are not very interested in philosophy and philosophical issues. They are practical and pragmatic, but above all their philosophy is ‘I want’, and both social engineering and sciences are to just give them the technology and techniques for achieving the desired. I think if, figuratively speaking, Jesus went down to them, they would be only interested in acquiring his skills and techniques and applying them. Of course, after making sure he does not threat them (otherwise, a similar to “Star Wars” scenario will be activated), and trying to subject him, and treat him as a laboratory exemplar.
Ordinary people’s wishes can not interfere with and impede the rulers’ ones. Maybe, this is why the primary instincts are encouraged in the individualistic societies. Normally, any society has restrictions and taboos, and it is hard to believe it is just about mass culture and individual freedoms. More likely, the goal is eccentricity, sexual lawlessness, alcohol and addictions to be taken up as freedoms, so distracting people from thinking of their true freedoms. People are encouraged, openly or not, through advertisements and mass culture, to harm their health through hazardous sex, alcohol, smoking and drugs, and afterward they themselves and society pay a lot of money for treatment, which certainly is also financially beneficial for variety of industries, including pharmaceutics.
Environmental short-sightedness
Nature is treated in the same way as society – as a resource for achieving small group of people’s individual and corporate goals as well as for fulfilling their limitless opportunities. Individualistic societies are unable to deal with the environmental problems likewise the way they are powerless in the social sphere. However, while in the social sphere it could be balanced somehow by the abundance of wealth concentrated from and on account of the world, in terms of ecology it can not happen.
Today’s environment shows the failure of the dominant Anglo-Saxon capitalism. Unlike the humans and societies, the nature can not be manipulated and exploited endlessly. The mankind reached the limit and began to realize it. Unlike worms, which corrode an apple, we have no where to shelter afterwards, including the rulers with unlimited opportunities. It is not know if ever and when people will be able to leave the Earth and colonize other planets or objects in space.
The leading countries and politicians try to take the initiative here too, but their approach is clearly limited to enlightenment, i.e. alert about the situation and danger. At the same time, there still are powerful economic interests that oppose the actions addressing environmental problems. The environmental objectives, set in various documents and at different forums, are either regarded as insufficiently ambitious or can not be agreed. However, even if they were agreed, their feasibility would be doubtful since the sustainable development requires a life philosophy differing from both individualism and consumerism. Unfortunately, Europe, the European Union, the leading European countries and increasing number of other have got into, softly speaking, Anglo-Saxon influence, and therefore are moving away from the sustainable development.
3. WHAT IS COMING?
Negation and replacement of the leading concepts and lifestyles
There will be disappointment in the now dominant views associated with capitalism / individualism and perhaps democracy, which will lead to their denial and replacement in accordance with the development spiral known from the Hegelian dialectic. It means not only a negation of the theory, but also of its practical dimensions in living, including both current world leadership and related relations and organizations.
It is yet not known which will be the new dominant concept, and who will be its carriers. It may be related to ecology, since the environmental problems are becoming far more acute, and will inevitably stand in the centre of attention, while the systemic failure of the leading individualist societies and their leaders to deal with them will be tangibly felt by the world. The strength and sharpness of the resistance to this leadership change will probably depend on the severity of the problems, as well as on whether the way for expansion and new space colonization will be found. In the latter case, the ruling circles would rather treat the Earth as a rotten apple, and would search for a egoistic salvation.
It is not excluded that the current trend of global total control and manipulation will continue, but getting regional, nationalistic or other similar dimensions, particularly given that the current opposition to the global Big Brother, which has retained some potential and capacity for organized resistance, including appropriate psychological attitude of the population, can not be described as democratic. However, the presence of many totalitarian centres would still be pluralism, and hence could result in positive long term developments.
Dealing with the Big-Brotherhood
The Big-Brotherhood problem is not due to the revolutionary technological development, which has occurred for the recent decades, respectively ICT methods and techniques for psychological impact. George Orwell created that image in his novel shortly after the World War II, as opposition to the totalitarianism and propaganda at that time, when there was just radio and cinema, and the boom in the development of psychology was forthcoming. But the technological development made the Big-Brotherhood more sophisticated and raised it to a new level.
I hope that the use of ICT and psychological techniques by the rulers for control and manipulation of both individuals and communities will be overcome. It could happen by using the same means, for example development and distribution of such ICT, which are aimed at protecting the personal privacy and freedom. Possibly, the world rulers’ skills for implementation of ICT and psychological impact techniques will gradually be acquired and used by a number of centres of power. However, people and societies will gradually learn to recognize them and not succumb. The Big-Brotherhood problem now swept under the rug purposefully (by the rulers) or because of reluctance and fear will gradually be recognized and evaluated as priority.
It is also possible, even though may sound fantastic hat the psychology, communication, interaction between the people in society will develop in new directions of more transparency and sharing both life and thoughts with each other.
Triad Individualism-Sociality-Environmentalism
The human aggression, love of power and greed that underlie today’s problems are so inherent to the human as the socials instincts and the need for community, belonging and cooperation are. In recent history, for the first time individual and social dimensions of the human have formed a leading duo and unity and struggle of opposites, a thesis and antithesis. Indeed, individualism appeared along with the capitalist system. While the individualism / capitalism, which preceded the socialism and sent it history (or at least its most radical and organized carriers) seemed triumphant winner in the late 80’s and early 90’s of the last century, it now appears to be one-sided and insufficient by itself.
In this sense, there will probably be return and strengthening of the social, communal elements and more close monitoring on those individuals and groups of “world rulers”, who now have enormous and uncontrolled power. The new socialism / sociality will certainly differ from the Soviet one, and will rather express itself as attachment to community, more cooperation and responsibility to the society. The latter will differ from the “social responsibility” which, like the ever popular “Glasnost” only depends on the goodwill; it will then be both an obligation and value.
Environmentalism will join the current duo individualism-socialism. And maybe exactly from the former will come the strongest impetus for change and shifting power from the individualism. The question is whether it will be too late.
If we lean on the experience, the environmental problems will continue to be swept under the rug, because of both resistance of the individualism and existing powerful economic interests, and their influence on the public consciousness on one hand, and due to the psychological denial from the society on another hand. This will go on until many people feel the environmental problems really acutely, and the latter become environmental cataclysms. Otherwise, even now there are many indicators of climate change, as well as voices predicting a pending catastrophe within one or more decades, but people are too busy with the problems in the ‘individual-society’ duo.
It is obvious that the leaders of individualistic societies are trying to play a leading role in relation to ecology too. However, they can hardly be successful, because coping with these problems requires a different philosophy including rejection of consumerism. Because of their impotence in this regard, they would possibly resort to imitation of change, and thereby will delay and make it more difficult to find proper environmental solutions.
I wish to believe that alternative projects with efficient environmental aspects will appear before the ecological disaster, and will prevent it. We can only speculate whether they will include the good old statehood and nationalism, which currently seems to be the only hope for correction of the global individualism and Big-Brotherhood.
If we survive, ideal would be to have a balance between individualism, sociality and environmentalism. Of course, every ideal is utopian, and even if pursued it can never be fully achieved. Since two poles are a normal and stable condition in the nature, it is likely to have a new grouping in pairs in the triad individualism-sociality-environmentalism. It may be a variation of our historically familiar duos society-nature (from the early stages of development of the homo sapience). It is even possible that if the environmental disaster is avoided a new duo individualism-environmentalism will make first appearance. However, I suppose that individualism will have previously undergone transformation and catharsis, and above all, will have dismissed the consumerism and Big-Brotherhood. Anyway, the next duo will most likely include sociality, either as a transition or as a permanent condition.
If the individualism and the socialism are two opposite extremes of the same thing, we could maybe expect their convergence (synthesis) in a more distant future. Then probably, a third element will be clearly outlined and ready to join the duo. It may be the spirituality and what is now associated with divinity. Or it could appear from the technology.
In conclusion, these thoughts of mine may be familiar to someone, look like an attempt at fiction a la Orwell to others, or as madness for third. Anyway, I hope that they will still lead anyone to think and at least sometimes try to perceive the media news from this point of view.
Abstract For having an all round development of the economy the need of the hour is to have sound land use planning that can help to mitigate the negative effects of land use and enhance the efficient use of resources with minimal impact on future generations. Instead of encroaching on fertile land for the establishment of agro-economic zones we should aim to set it up on barren and uncultivable land further if they are exhausted or unavailable we should go for cultivable wasteland as a last option. It would be a great blunder if we continue to shift our valuable fertile agricultural land for purposes other than agriculture and its allied purposes. Let more investment on infrastructure may be allowed in distant barren and uncultivable lands for the time being but in long run our agricultural land would be saved for us as well as for our coming generation. Keywords: Land-Use, Planning, Agro-Economic Zones, Wasteland.
1.0 Introduction Land is an essential pre-requisite both for primary production system as well as for meeting social priorities and therefore, must be available in adequate extent and desired quality. With the growth and development of economy we observe that the per capita availability of the resource is declining due to various reasons. Successful development planning for future will now depend on scientific land use planning with specific consideration to maintaining and improving the interrelationship between land and water cycles. In developing countries like India, problems of soil erosion and land degradation are intimately associated with land husbandry as well as growth promoting developmental activities. It is, therefore, necessary to ensure generation of sustainable livelihood in terms of food and income through proper maintenance and enhancement of the productivity of the resource base on a long term basis. Our aim to save the degrading land resource is due to the fact all the agricultural activities depend on the physical environment in which he is living and not only does his survival depends upon the food production he produces but agriculture sector plays a strategic role in the process of economic development.
But with the growing rate of urbanization and increasing population the acquisition of the land for non farm activities have been very rampant in all over India in many cases the land acquisition has been for the setting up of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and it has put a important focus on the loss of agricultural land. As this problem has been addressed in a National Development Council meeting on December 23, 2006, by our Prime Minister Manmohan Singh when he said that: “I agree that we must minimize the diversion of agricultural land and, given the choice, must opt for using wasteland for non-agricultural purposes. However, it must be kept in mind that industrialization is a national necessity if we have to reduce the pressure on agriculture and provide gainful, productive employment to millions of our youth who see no future in agriculture.” This land acquisition for any purpose other than agriculture has been modifying the land use pattern of India and often has turn out to be negative to a much extent. Uttar Pradesh one of the most populous state of India is no exceptional with the passing of time more and more fertile land are being acquired either willingly or forcibly in the name of development.
2.0 Agricultural Overview of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh that accommodates 166.2 million populations with a density of 690 persons per square kilometer. The state has total 242.02 lakh hectare is reported area out of which 167.50 lakh hectare is brought under cultivation. About 58 lakh hectares of wastelands have been treated and brought under cultivation. Approximately 31.4 per cent of fertile land is being used for non-agricultural uses when approximately 30 per cent of the states income comes from agriculture. While on the other hand the forest cover that plays an important role in balancing the ecosystem is less than 7.0 per cent and that too is not effectively covered by forests. When according to forest policy it should have been one-third forest cover for healthy environment. Adverse environmental impact is now reflected in falling yield and increasing other fallow and current fallow lands as it is becoming uneconomical to cultivate. For example in Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, Lucknow and Unnao districts other and current fallow lands have increased up to 15.0 per cent. In U.P. cereal production was 41.76 million metric tones in 2001-02 which has fallen to 37.57 million metric tones in 2004-05 due to land degradation. Though during the last 50 years we have treated most of the wastelands and added mostly with agricultural land, but it is reported that after few years of cropping, land is again becoming infertile and uneconomical. Uneconomic agriculture, landlessness among rural masses and quest of modernization has created momentum to migrate from rural to urban areas that too towards metropolitan cities, where congestion and pollution is unimaginable. During last fifty years the land under non-farm use related to mainly urban has almost doubled, which would continue to grow. More than 50.0 per cent districts are showing above the state average, i.e., 10.6 per cent land under non-farm use. In Ambedkar Nagar, Kushi Nagar, Sant Ravi Das Nagar and Ghaziabad districts, the land under non-farm use has crossed beyond 15.0 per cent and many other districts are on the same trend.
2.1 Existing Land Use If we analyze the land utilization during 2002 and 2005 we find that during these five years the land put to non-agricultural uses has risen 5.3 per cent and the current fallow has risen to 18.6 per cent and as a result the land which is lifeline, i.e. forest land and net area sown has decreased to 0.1 per cent and 0.8 per cent respectively. The land put to non-agricultural uses is occupying about 10.9 per cent area and in most of the cases it is expanding on most of the fertile lands when this land is important for food grain production for feeding the teeming millions. We are in deficit of 23 per cent of forest cover which is necessary to meet the National Forest Policy and as well to provide the better environment and retain the fertility of the soil. Urbanization and industrialization are the dialectal phenomenon which cannot be stopped but we must have certain policy to control their haphazard growth. (See Table: 1)
2.2 Growing Trend of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses The annual growth rate of land put to non-agricultural uses in Uttar Pradesh is not uniformed. During 2001 and 2002 the growth rate was 3.2 per cent which dropped to 1.6 per cent during 2002 and 2003 but again it has risen to 2.1 per cent during 2004 and 2005. It is expected that during recent yeas the growth rate is much faster. (See Table: 2)
2.3 Regional Pattern of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses Since Uttar Pradesh is one of the largest States the land put to non-agricultural uses in rural and urban areas has been worked out according to its four geographical regions[(i)Western region,(ii)Central region,(iii)Bundelkhand &(iv)Eastern region] during 2001 and 2008. Comparatively Western region is highest urbanized in Uttar Pradesh but its growth rate during 2001 and 2008 is less than the State average in both rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses. The Central region has recently (2008) surpassed the State average in its rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses. The growth of land put to non-agricultural uses in rural areas has risen to 19.1 per cent whereas in urban areas the growth was 43.0 per cent during 2001 and 2008. Similarly in Bundelkhand during last eight years the growth rate has gone up to 17.6 per ce
nt in rural areas and 30.6 per cent in urban areas. In case of Eastern region the growth rate in rural and urban areas of land put to non-agricultural uses was higher than the Western region but quite far behind than the Central region and Bundelkhand, i.e., 11.3 and 4.8 per cent respectively. Overall the growth rate of total land put to non-agricultural uses was below the State average in only Western region but in Central region, Bundelkhand and Eastern regions it was quite high, i.e. 22.2, 18.5 and 10.7 per cent respectively. The growth of rural and urban land put to non-agricultural uses is alarmingly high in Central region and Bundelkhand which needs an urgent policy and control measures. (See Table: 3)
2.4 Districts Having Fast Growth of Land Put to Non- Agricultural Uses During 2008 there are districts in Uttar Pradesh where rural land put to non-agricultural uses has gone up quite high than the State average 10.7 per cent. For example highest proportion of land put to non-agricultural uses are occupied in districts like Ghaziabad 18.4, Ambedkar Nagar 17.6, Kushi Nagar 17.4, Sant Kabir Nagar 15.3, Ballia 14.8, Ghazipur 14.0 per cent. While calculating the growth rate during 2001 and 2008 we worked out the average annual growth rate of rural areas put to non-agricultural uses and the State average comes 1.5 per cent there are districts where the annual growth rate is manifold than the State average, for example, Chitrakoot 10.4, Faizabad 8.7, Mahoba 6.6, Kanpur Urban 6.5, Unnao 5.6 and Ambedkar Nagar 5.0 per cent. In most of the cases the land put to non-agricultural uses in rural areas is in fact influenced by neighboring towns and cities which are in the process of transition to become urban land. For vertical industrial and urban growth or vertical settlements in rural areas there is an urgent need of government policy which should be strictly implemented through the Town and Country Planning. (See Table: 4)
2.5 Fast Growth of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Blocks If we go to micro-block level to understand the fast growth of rural land put to non-agricultural uses, we find at least 29 blocks are showing very fast growth rate, there are blocks like Razapur block, Loni block in Ghaziabad, Morava block in Muzaffarnagar, Kashi Vidyapeeth block in Varanasi and Kaurihar block in Allahabad where land put to non-agricultural uses is occupying more than one-fifth of the total area of each respective block. There are blocks where annual growth rate is more than 10 per cent which are Dabri block in Gautam Budh Nagar, Sarojininagar block in Lucknow, Rasulabagh block in Kanpur Dehat and Bhitargaon in Kanpur Nagar (See Table: 5)
3.0 Need of Agro-Economic Zone With the passage of time the conversion of farm land for non farm activities has been at a faster rate and often these non farm activities around the farm lands have an adverse affect on the crop growth. This conversion of farm land into non farm land opens the gate for an intensive rate of the acquisition of land for non farm activities. The prevailing practice is to acquire land on the fringe of the cities where most of the infrastructures are available and market forces are playing. So for higher monetary gains the valuable agricultural land is acquired from innocent farmers by luring/inducing/forcing them by the money/muscle power. The farmers who have been depended upon the agriculture since centuries tend to sell off their land but it takes at least one century for them to adjust with the non farm activities. The processes of land acquisition along with the adverse impact of the Green Revolution on the soil fertility as well as the irregular monsoonal rainfall have brought down the food production. As according to the latest economic survey conducted by Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) (Oct. 27, 2009) “Decline in acreage and expected fall in yield will lead to a 16 per cent drop in kharif food grain production. It is expected to fall to 98 million tonnes from 117.7 million tonnes produced in kharif 2008.” Further if we analyze just the production of wheat one of the major food crops we observe that its production per hectare was 2708 kg in the year 2000-01 but it decreased to only 2602 kg per hectare in 2004-05 that is at the national level the per hectare production of wheat has dipped 106 kg. This is when as well known that the population growth have till now shown an upward trend.
We do we cannot deny the fact that urbanization and industrialization brings with it development and we cannot just deny being an agrarian economy as still about 60.0 per cent rural population of India depends upon the agriculture. The answer is to have Agro Economic Zones on the line and pattern of Special Economic Zone that will on one hand boost the economy of the said area because it will be able to generate employment for the local inhabitants and on the other hand will help in giving a boost to the agrarian economy of the state and country as a whole.
3.1 Priority of Land Acquisition for Agro- Economic Zone It is high time that we must save our agricultural land and must disperse our urbanization in all the regions in a balance way if Agricultural Economic Zones (AEZ) is located adjacent to small and medium towns where non-agricultural lands are available. Maybe more infrastructure would be required for the zones to be established in these areas but in the longer run we will be able to reap benefits from our hardships. Our aim in this would be to save our valuable fertile agricultural land and allow the small and medium towns to grow parallel to bigger cities; this would further pave the way for a sustainable urban growth.
The alternative of saving valuable agricultural land and so as to achieve a balanced urbanization our option is to utilize our land which is available in the form of barren and uncultivable wasteland as a first priority after the first priority is exhausted or no more available in a particular district we should go for barren cultivable wasteland as a second priority. Similarly the last option for acquiring the land should be of old fallow land of more than five years. During 2004-05 in nearly 28 districts of Uttar Pradesh barren and uncultivable lands that are more than the State average is available. Similarly barren and cultivable wasteland and old fallow land are available in 25 and 24 districts of Uttar Pradesh respectively, which are more than the State average. The fact is further stressed upon that it has been experienced that the revenue records of the State do not show the right picture of the land use statistics, therefore satellite imageries should be the basis for occupying these non agricultural lands for agro economic zones.(See Table: 6)
3.2 Policy Formulation for Agro Economic Zones For establishment of the Agro- Economic Zones all primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in the rural economy should be combined in the agro activity-centered growth. It should aim towards the development of agro based industries in the state of Uttar Pradesh and transform the state into a major agro industrial hub. So as to attract more investors towards the agro economic zones the Uttar Pradesh Agro Economic Zone (AEZ) Policy should provide the promoters and the investors with a unique double way exemptions and incentives plan. The development plan pertaining to the Uttar Pradesh AEZ should be divided into different categories based upon the priority list given above.
Features of Uttar Pradesh AEZ Policy should be that- The methods used in the acquisition of lands should be highly effective and time conserving. The use of single window system pertaining to granting of permits and approvals based on the issues such as work force and environment should be propagated. There should be exemptions pertaining to registration fees and stamp duties. The exemptions from different kinds of tariffs, local and state duties, and taxes pertaining to the func
tions in the Agro Economic Zones should be considered. Permission pertaining to the setting up of power generation units by the manufacturing units for their own use should be allowed.
Issues related to Uttar Pradesh Agro Economic Zone are- Law and order: For regulating law and order the State Government of Uttar Pradesh should take appropriate measures Taxes, duties, local taxes levied by the State Government of Uttar Pradesh: All kind of taxes levied by the State Government of Uttar Pradesh including sales tax, purchase tax, cess, octroi, etc. related to the supply of services and goods should be exempted.
Water Supply: The area of the Agro Economic Zone should have adequate supply of water as suggested by the administrative authority of the AEZ.
Power Supply: The area of AEZ should have continuous supply of power and also have back up power service in case of stand by situations.
Registration of SSI and IT enabled services: The administrative authorities should be empowered to grant permanent and provisional registration for the small-scale industry and information technology enabled service units that are either related to the agriculture or should be able to boost the agro economy of the zone.
4.0 Conclusion Though in India agriculture is not so lucrative because of many geographical and social factors but agricultural land whatever it is available with us should be maintained intact. Despite of globalization agriculture is the fundamental basis of India’s survival therefore we must have a proper strategy to for land use planning in a scientific manner. The lands that are not being cultivated that are barren and uncultivable wasteland as well as old fallows are enough to meet our urban demands and Special Economic Zones/ Agro Economic Zones. Simply on the basis of availability of infrastructure or agricultural land we should not go for establishing these zones; it would be a serious mistake which would be irreversible. Therefore, it is most essential to identify the non-agricultural land through satellite imageries and it should be a compulsion to utilize these non-agricultural lands on priority basis. Agricultural land should not be allowed simply on the basis of market forces, there should be strict check and control on the basis of clear cut formulated policies at all cost.
Article by: Prof.(Dr.) S.S.A. Jafri Giri Institute of Development Studies & Ms. Milita Haldar Lecturer, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial Engineering and Management College, Lucknow and Doctoral Fellow, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow
Reference:
Citizens’ Research Collective(2007) www.infochangeindia.org
Fazal, S (2000), The Need for Preserving Farm Land: A Case Study From a Predominantly Agrarian Economy, Landscape and Land Use Planning Elsewhere.
Goswami, Bhaskar, (2007), “Chinese Lessons for India-SEZ” www.indiatogether.org/2007/feb/opisezchina.htm
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http://www.cmie.com.
Jafri, S.S.A., (2009) “Rural-Urban Nexus Policy and Urban Poverty: A Comparative Analysis of India and China”, in E-Journal: www.indiastat.com.
Jafri, S.S.A., (2008) “Urbanization in Uttar Pradesh” Urban Panorama: A Journal of Urban Governance and Management, Vol. VII, No. 2.
Shafi, M., 1969. “Land Use Planning, Land Classification and Land Capability, Methods and Techniques”. The Geographer, Aligarh.
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Verma, V.L., (2006), Urban Geography, Rawat Publication, New Delhi, p 273
Table 1: Land Utilization in Uttar Pradesh: 2002 & 2005 Source: (a) Based on Statistical Abstract of U.P., 2006. (b) Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P.
Table 2: Annual Growth Trend of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Uttar Pradesh, 2001-2005 Source: Based upon Statistical Abstract of U.P., 2007
Table 3: Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Regions of Uttar Pradesh, 2001 & 2008 Source: Based on Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P. (upgov.up.nic.in/engspatrika) Table 4: Districts of Fast Growth (Above Average) of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses in Rural Areas of Uttar Pradesh, 2001 & 2008 Source: Based on Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P. (upgov.up.nic.in/engspatrika)
Table 5: Block-wise Growth of Land Put to Non-Agricultural Uses, 1998 & 2008 Source: Based on Sankhyakiya Patrika of U.P. (upgov.up.nic.in/engspatrika) Table 6: PRIORITY OF LAND AVAILABLE FOR AGRO-ECONOMIC ZONE 2004-05 Source: Based on Sankhyaki Patrika, State Planning Department, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh.
The smallest unit of human society is a family, which is based on love and compassion. But what an anomaly that the coordinating agency or federating authority of families, which is known as the state, is based on repression and violence! So as it is to change an unjust system or destroy an oppressive state violent methods are needed. Gandhi experienced and realised the cruelty inherent in the anomaly. He felt the depressiveness of the situation. He visualised human society as a family, where love and compassion should be the way to resolve various conflicts. Gandhi introduced non-violent methods based on a threefold action: Satyagrah (insistence to truth), Asagayoga (non-cooperation) and Atmanigrah-atmabalidan (self-abnegation, self-sacrifice). The combination of all of these is crystallized in Savinaya Avajnya Andolan (civil disobedience movement) by individuals and communities against the oppressor and oppressive authority. Gandhi successfully fought the British imperial authority with his non-violent methods and led the Indian subcontinent towards Independence.
Indian Tradition
Impact of Mahabharat War1 and its apparent futility
Urge to find an alternative to war
Evolution – Reshabhadeo2 to Buddha3, static non-violence to dynamic non-violence, Nirvana (non-enmity to Karuna (compassion to love))
Karuna was entwined with Nivrutti4 (life of renunciation) and Pravrutti5 (worldly life, even as propounded by Krishan6) was involved with violence
Buddha7 to Gandhi – Synthesis8 between Karuna (compassion and love) and Pravrutti (worldly life) is evolved.
In Semitic tradition
A. Concept of God
In Judaism: a just patriarch who punishes his folk in various ways if they defy or go astray
In Christianity: God is an all-loving father who pardons sins and weaknesses of his folk on repentance; his grace guides them to emancipation
In Islam: Allah (God) is just. He is merciful while giving judgement. He is Rahamanir Rahim (the benevolent, the compassionate).
B. On the social plane
In Judaism: It is tooth for a tooth and an eye for an eye
In Christianity: Love they neighbour as thyself, and compassion for the sinner. No retaliation to violence, instead prove its futility by loving defiance
In Islam: Sanctity of human life is propounded emphatically. Equality and brotherhood of human-kind is emphasised. Return evil acts by good acts, and the evil doer will become your bosom friend.
PURPOSE
We need a forum on the global plane where all people who believe in the sanctity of life would join together in an endeavour to evolve ways and methods based on non-violence for resolving various human conflicts. In the present situation, the UNO, for the cause of people, deploys armed forces to control and suppress different warring groups and countries. Peace imposed by arms is a mirage. Hence the forum’s priority would be to organise a Global Peace Crops. It would comprise of intelligent and self-sacrificing people from all parts of the globe, representing different ethnic, cultural and linguistic groups. When constituted, the corps would replace the armed forces deployed by the UN in due course of time. The members of the Global Peace Corps, with their knowledge and compassionate understanding, would try to dissuade the warring groups and countries from killing each other and forsake the path of violence.
In the process, if need arises, the members of the Global Peace Corps would risk their lives by coming in between the warring groups. Sacrifices would continue till the feuding parties agree to settle their disputes by peaceful methods.
All those people who have experienced the beauty and joy of life and have ennobled themselves by human kinds aesthetic sensibility and its various creative expression, should come forward and assist the forum in its purpose to evolved and build a society and a system where everybody could partake in this beautiful and joyous phenomena of life, without fear or remorse.
NOTES
1. Mahabharat War
After the war between Ram and Ravana, which was fought in South India, the Mahabharat was the most important event of ancient India. It was fought between two groups of cousins – the Kauravas and the Pandvas, in the plains of Kurukshetra near Delhi, in which practically every important ruler from West (Afghanistan) to East (Kamprup Assam) participated. Its exact timing is yet to be determined. It could be done by backward astronomical calculation of timings of the position of stars and constellations as mentioned in the Mahabharat. The destructive power of weaponry used in the war competes with that of nuclear weapons. The impact of ‘Brahmshirastra’, launched by Kaurava’s general Ashwathama, is described by the writer of the Epic Mahabharat in the following words: ‘fierce energy blazed up with terrible flames within a huge sphere of fire. Numerous peals of thunder were heard, thousands of meteors fell and all living beings were overtaken with great dread. The entire welkin was filled with great noise and assumed a terrible aspect with those flames of fire. The whole earth with their mountains, waters and trees trembled.’ To neutralise and counteract that weapon, Arjuna (the third of the Pandava brothers) launched another highly powerful weapon. Before these weapons could collide and let loose destructive and devastating energies and also leave a long term impact of a rainless 12 years, sages intervened, positioning themselves in between the two weapons. They persuaded both the fighters to withdraw their weapons, thus saving the earth and its inhabitants from impending disaster. In the Epic Mahabharat, the writer Sri Ved Vyasa observed that there is no winner in the war; the victor and the vanquished both are losers, the worst losers are people. Since that time an urge to find an alternative to war took possession of the Indian psyche.
2. and 3. Rishabhadeo – Nirvaira (non-enmity) and Buddha – Karuna (compassion and love)
Rishabhadeo was a king of Ayodhya in ancient times, who introduced agriculture and taught people how to live in harmony. He renounced the worldly affairs for a life on penance, meditation and contemplation to find the Truth (Reality) of life. He experienced that while doing penance, he was bereft of fear and enmity towards all beings – humans, animals, birds, insects and others. In response to this state of mind and feelings, other beings also shed their fear and enmity towards him. It was a stand still situation of Nirvaira (non-enmity) thus the static non-violence. Later Buddha added a new dimension to this state of mind and feelings. He had a novel experience that after one sheds fear and enmity, positive feelings of Karuna (love and compassion) engulfs oneself. This Karuna (love and compassion) permeates other beings who come in contact with the ‘compassionate-one’. Thus is the dynamic of non-violence.
4. and 5. Nivrutti and Pravrutti
Human kind has one qualitative difference from other living species; its urge to know and comprehend Truth and the phenomena of life. And on the basis of that knowledge to coordinate and correlate individual as well as community living with the laws of the universe. There are two ways to understand and comprehend cosmic phenomena; one is to participate in the creative and productive process which leads gradually to widening the horizon of our knowledge about the laws of the universe. It is called Pravrutti Marg. The other is to renounce aforesaid activities for meditation, contemplation and penance to understand and go deep into one’s self. As one is an integral part of the phenomena, by knowing self, one can know that also. It is called Nivrutti Marg.
6. Pravrutti – as propounded by Krishna
Krishna propounded that one should participate in worldly activities in a detached manner without any consideration of subjective interests. This universe is a playfield of the cosmic being, who expresses itself in manifold ways and myriad forms for the sake of Anand (joy). It is called Lila (dance drama) of the cosmic being. One is only an actor in this Lila (dance drama), so why be subjective about one’s role or its outcome. Rita (law and rhythm) sustains this Lila. To enjoy Lila fully the individual and the society have to tune itself with the Rita. This is the way of Dharma, any individual or group which obstructs this intoning has to be suppressed or eliminated as situations demand.
7. Buddha – further elucidation
With the common formulation that soul transmigrates from one body to another and the shared premise that attitude and inclination of the being at the time of death determines its next living form and personality; Buddha elucidated later that instead of suppressing or eliminating wrong doers or evil doers, one should educate them and sublimate them by Prajnya (higher knowledge) and Karuna (compassion and love). In the long run suppression and elimination are counterproductive. The eliminated one or ones are born again with the psychic deficiency of the previous birth and thus their obstruction to the intoning of life with Rita continues. In order to achieve the desired results, one should shun the violence in dealing with recalcitrant enemies and instead adopt the path of Karuna to sublimate them. Buddha’s preaching’s did have universal appeal, but its practice was mostly limited to the people who renounced the life of worldly affairs like saints, monks and others. For a common householder and men of worldly affairs detached activities which included violence against criminals and enemies was the way towards higher life.
8. Synthesis
For two thousand years, the people of India, defying common logic, have experimented in various ways in many walks of life to synthesise between two seemingly opposite directions: Pravrutti ( a life of worldly affairs), presupposed violence and Karuna (love and compassion) presupposed Nivrutti ( a life of renunciation). Their success was limited generally to family affairs and immediate neighbourhood. On a wider canvas Guru Tegh Bahadur, a saint and householder of the seventeenth century is a shining example of that experiment. All the way from Anandpur Sahib, a place in Punjab near foothills of Himalayas, he came to Delhi to face the wrath of Mughal King Aurangazeb and resist his drive of forcible conversions in a peaceful manner. He sacrifices his life and that of his camp followers without rancour remorse and enmity at the altar of human freedom. This process continued and Gandhi became the harbinger of a new way. He experimented with and evolved non-violent methods for effecting desirable changes in the affairs of the state and system of governance – bastions of violent authority thus synthesising Karuna and Pravrutti to a great extent.
Triloki Nath Purwar
Triloki Nath Purwar was a freedom fighter who participated in 1942 Quit India Movement and was imprisoned for about a year. He participated in peoples movement in 1947 in Tehri Garhwal state against feudal order and was imprisoned.
After his release from jail he organized a successful non-violent people’s movement and dislodged Tehri Garhwal ruler and handed over the administration to the forces of Government of India. In mid 50’s he went for a study tour in Assam there he came in contact with Nagas and other tribal groups then onward he concentrated on the problems of North East. He came to Delhi and contacted leaders of the Central Government.
After their approval he started on a one man’s peace mission in Nagaland. The then Chief Minister of Assam did not appreciate the interference of central leadership in his domain so he was obstructed by state government and was put in jail on false charge of violating inner line regulation. After his release from imprisonment he continued on with the problem.
After ten years again in 1963 an understanding was reached between him and Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister of India. He went on a tour of Nagaland where he was able to persuade a sizeable number of people to his point of view. The nominated leadership who were heading the state administration felt insecure that they may not be able to find a place in an understanding interfered with his work and forcibly sent him to Shillong.
Triloki Nath Purwar came to Delhi and discussed the issue with Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister, who hesitated a bit. He then went to Nagaland and started a Satyagrah.
There he was arrested and imprisoned. He went on a fast which continued on for forty days, which be broke after a Peace Mission was announced for the Naga problem and state authorities were instructed to make arrangements for travel of Triloki Nath Purwar to either to Bhubaneshwar (where Congress Party was holding its annual session), Allahabad or New Delhi as Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister, wanted to see him. He reached Bhubaneshwar but he could not see the prime minister as Prime Minister had a paralytic attack.
Peace Mission started its activities and Triloki Nath Purwar continued on communicating with his contacts of Naga rebels. Peace mission failed because its member could not understand the Naga psyche and establish a rapport with them.
And after that for a few decades he dedicated himself to studies, meditation and contemplation. After achieving a understanding on clarity about his future work, he has decided to resume his activities again for a cause of harmonious human society.
He initiated an idea of half million non-violence peace volunteers for stopping wars in the world.
Triloki Nath Purwar was active in Bangladesh Movement also. After the independence of the country he never accepted the membership of any political party. He never voted in general elections, he never participated in electoral politics because according to him some aspects of constitution of India are not in harmony with people’s interest.
The country is facing multitude of problems in power sector. Despite huge investments since independence and considerable increase in generating capacity, electricity is still out of reach for about 40% of the population. In the backdrop of escalating demand for electricity, the social, economic and environmental implications of large addition of conventional power stations, the very need for huge extension of grid based electricity supply systems need to be carefully reviewed not only from the point of sustainability of the present practices, but also from the perspective of looming crisis of Global Warming. Inequity and injustice being meted out to the rural poor because of the inherent shortcomings of the centralized system of electricity supply need to be at the centre of our policy concerns.]
Preface The country is facing multitude of problems in power sector. The electricity scenario in the country since independence has been a sad story of power cuts, both scheduled and unscheduled; low & high voltages; frequent collapse of the grid either locally or at state level or at regional level; unsatisfactory customer service; poor operational & financial performance; electricity injustice between rich and poor, and between urban and rural populations; the escalating demand from the urban population for electricity; poor quality of power even during few hours of nominal supply; ever increasing electricity prices; unsustainable subsidies; mounting losses of the supply companies; fast dwindling coal reserves; increasing uncertainty in the availability of gas and nuclear fuel for power generation; growing concern on the socio-environmental impacts of large power projects including dams and the consequent opposition to new power projects; huge inefficiency of the existing facilities etc.
Despite the massive investments in the power sector since independence, the successive governments have been arguing that due to low per capita electricity consumption of about 650 kWH (in 2009)in the country, which is one of the lowest in the world, there is a need for massive addition to the installed capacity in order to provide electricity to all. However, the socio-environmental impacts of large power projects are posing serious obstacles in the form of strong opposition in the implementation of such additions. Though there have been massive additions to the installed capacity since independence about 40% of the households in the country is still without access to electricity. While the per capita consumption of electricity of urban India is escalating the rural communities are struggling even to get electricity for basic needs. Such disparity between the urban and rural communities is seriously affecting the overall development of the country, because the per capita consumption of electricity of a small section of the urban rich is reaching the level of developed economies, and demanding more of installed generation capacity.
Energy consumption is closely associated with a substantial part of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions leading to Global Warming. Of various forms of energy electricity alone is responsible for about 42% of global CO2 emissions and about 24% of all GHG emissions. Though the official stand of the govt. has been that its per capita electricity consumption will not exceed that of the developed countries, the total GHG emissions of India’s large population, even if the per capita consumption were to reach only 25% of the largest consumer nation, will be huge. In the backdrop of such Climate Change concerns, even though there is clearly a huge disparity between the countries in energy consumption and CO2 emissions, the question is whether India should continue with the fossil fuel driven economic development pathway. Table 1 gives an indication of per capita emission and electricity consumption.
Whereas the grid based centralized generation system based on large size fossil fuel based or dam based power stations has failed to meet the basic energy needs of the majority of the country’s rural population, the same is proving to be very costly to the society in the form of economic, social and environmental impacts. The escalating growth of conventional electricity power plants based on fossil fuels and dams in the country are not only adversely impacting the rural communities around such plants, but also are attracting world attention because the country is seen to be emerging as one of the biggest contributors to the Global Warming.
The poverty alleviation, rural electrification, decentralized electricity supply system based on renewable energy sources, human development, mitigation and adoption to Climate Change are all intricately linked, and hence need to be addressed with an integrated approach. A paradigm shift is needed in the way we look at the future electricity needs of our country. please See Table 1: Global Electricity Consumption and CO2 Emission (Year 2007)
Indian Electricity Scenario – a bleak picture The electricity scenario in the country since independence has been such a sad story that the sector has been recognized as one of the main hurdles in adequate development of the society. Even if we leave out the first decade after independence as a point in our learning curve in managing our own affairs, one cannot look back at the performance of the sector during last five decades with any pride, except that there has been massive spending in the power sector resulting in phenomenal increase in the installed generating capacity, transmission & distribution network, and the demand for electricity.
The installed generating capacity has gone up from few thousand MW at the time of independence to a level of hundred fifty thousand MW, with thermal power providing about 65% of the capacity, hydro providing 25% and the remaining in the form of new & renewable energy sources with a very small contribution of 2.9% from nuclear power. Please See Table 2: Fuel-wise Installed Capacity (as on 31.8.09)
Though there have been deficits in electricity supply both during peak demand hours and in annual energy requirement, the problem generally has been acute in meeting the peak hour demand. Between 1996 and 2009 the peak power deficit has touched a maximum of 18% and annual energy deficit has gone upto 11.5%. Power supply position as indicated in the table below for the period 1996-2009 can be viewed as typical for the entire country during last two decades.
All the five regions and almost all the states have been experiencing power cuts. Though power deficits were recorded for every year during 1996-2009, the total installed capacity and per capita consumption has been increasing continuously. The urban areas have recorded nearly 100% electrification, and the per capita consumption of a small section of urban elites seem to have reached the level of that in the developed countries. Between 1996 and 2009 the energy availability in the country went up by nearly 90%; and between 1992 and 2006 the country recorded an increase of 52% in average per capita electricity consumption, but the 40% of the population remained without access to electricity. See-Table 3: Power Supply Position in India (Year 1996 to 2009)
The deficits experienced during the last two decades can be attributed to two main reasons. One reason is the huge growth in demand for electricity, mostly from industries and agriculture. Urban residential load also has seen considerable growth largely because of the penchant for energy guzzling gadgets like air conditioners, refrigerators, water heaters, computers and many types of entertainment tools. The other reason is the unbelievable level of inefficiencies at all stages between electricity generation an
d its end use. India has been known to be exhibiting one of the lowest levels of efficiency in the overall management of a vital resource like electricity. The average Plant Load Factor (PLF) of the coal power stations is reported to be about 63% as against best figure of more than 90% in the best run plants of NTPC. With a total coal power capacity of about 80,000 MW, improved PLF of 85% national average would have provided additionally about 17,600 MW for usage with the same installed generating capacity. This is in stark comparison of about 18,000 MW peak deficit recorded between 1996 and 2009. There have not been serious efforts to improve the efficiency levels to the international best practice levels, which alone would have eliminated the deficits completely. please See- Table 4: Power Sector Efficiency in India
The other blunders of the industry are: the unscientifically targeted subsidies which have become unsustainable; huge losses incurred by the electricity supply companies, which alone is reported to be about Rs. 25,000 crores a year; corrupt political interference in the affairs of these companies; lack of social and environmental responsibility for these companies; and poor work practices in these companies. Such deficiencies for decades have resulted in serious problems for the society as a whole. As per the Integrated Energy Policy of the Planning Commission “by 2031-32 the power generation capacity must increase to nearly 800,000 MW from the current capacity of about 160,000 MW inclusive of all captive power plants.” Such a large scale addition of conventional power capacity in a short period will have profound impact on social, environmental and economic aspects of our society. It is pertinent to note here that the Integrated Energy Policy has also contended that despite the increase of the electricity generation capacity /supply by 5 to 6 times by 2031-32 the energy security cannot be assured at least until 2050. This indicates the inadequacy / failure of the grid based centralized electricity supply system to meet the energy demand of a huge population of a diverse country. please See Table 5: Major issues for the society with conventional technology power sources
Future Supply Scenario – towards a sustainable supply option Inherent with a grid based centralized generation system are the need for long lengths of transmission lines, complex network of distribution systems, and the associated equipment such as transformers. Each of these add to the complexity, reduced reliability and increased capital & operational costs. Such centralized generation systems also need huge organizational structure with large manpower leading to human resource issues, including the human induced errors. These centralized generation systems also are found to be economical only with large size power plants and concentrated loads. But Indian villages are wide spread and cannot provide any substantial loads individually as in the case of towns and cities. Because of these reasons the rural India, with more than 70% population, is getting poor electricity supply; villages are the last to get supply but the first to be disconnected in case of shortages.
The total installed generating capacity in the country has gone up from 58,012 MW in 1989 to 1,52,148 MW in 2009, a whopping 162% increase. Total monthly generation from conventional sources has increased from 43,596 MU in March 2000 to 65,057 MU in March 2008, an increase of about 50%. National per capita electricity consumption has gone up from 283 kWH in 1992-93 to 429 in 2005-06, an increase of 52%. But 40% of the households, mostly in rural areas, have no access to electricity even in 2009. {Source: as per Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) & Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India.}
Urgent measures such as improving the generating plant performance; reducing the T&D losses; minimizing the wastage in end usage; optimize the demand side management (DSM); and maximising energy conservation will be able not only to eliminate the existing deficits, but also will be able to meet a good portion of the future electricity demand.
The deficiencies, complexities and societal costs inherent in the grid based centralized generation system in India cannot provide any assurance that the rural-urban divide will be eliminated soon and that the electricity supply at the national level will be satisfactory in the near future. There is clearly an urgent need for a paradigm shift in our energy policy: instead of blindly adding millions of MW of additional capacity based on conventional power sources and centralized power supply system, we need to adopt an ‘integrated energy resource management’ approach which will have renewable energy sources and decentralized supply systems at its core.
There is growing conviction that in view of the huge societal costs associated with economic, social and environmental aspects of grid based centralized generation system of conventional power sources, the decentralized electric supply systems based on renewable energy sources are hugely economical in the long run. They are found to be the best option for the accelerated electrification of smaller loads and rural house holds. Many recent initiatives in the private sector to provide electricity to un-electrified villages through stand alone community based renewable energy power plants fed by bio-mass OR wind OR solar OR micro-hydel power have established that they are the appropriate solution to the energy requirements of most sections of the country. The major advantages which are associated with these alternatives are the shorter gestation periods, low societal impacts, and their immense suitability to rural needs. India has huge potential in renewable energy sources, and a combination of two or more such sources (Hybrid systems) have huge potential to be used in urban areas also, and are already being used in various combinations.
A recent survey by Greenpeace India has indicated a clear divide between rural and urban supply scenario across the country. While the substantial part of the annual power sector investment is going towards increasing the per capita consumption of the urban areas the rural population continues to get denied of even the basic electricity supply. A number of pilot projects across the country have indicated that decentralized supply systems based on renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, bio mass etc. are the best supply options to most of the rural areas of our country. Many of these renewable energy sources such as solar water heaters have already become established as good sources of renewable energy in urban areas like Bangalore, while solar photovoltaic panels are getting widely used in rural areas. Adequate support by the state and central government in the form of well targeted subsidies and/or suitable tariff policies to encourage feed-in-tariff mechanism has the potential not only to drastically reduce the pressure on the existing grid but also to reduce the future load on the grid. The decentralized supply systems based on renewable energy sources appear to be the only way of achieving 100% electrification in the near future. Table 6 indicates the huge potential of renewable energy sources in the country. please See Table 6: N&RE potential in India
Huge emphasis is needed on decentralized energy options in the future energy policy. Major options which have been considered as techno-economically viable are:
Roof top solar Photo Voltaic systems, which can meet most of the domestic and smaller loads, such as lighting, TV, computers etc. These are being increasingly used in countries like Germany and USA not
only to meet the domestic necessities, but for even exporting the excess power to the grid through a mechanism known as Feed-in- tariff.
Solar water heaters have established themselves as very effective tools to provide hot water for houses, nursing homes, hotels etc. at very economical prices. They are found to be very popular in Towns and cities, but can find good use in rural areas also.
Community based bio-mass systems are highly suited for rural areas, which generally have very good supply of bio-mass.
At places where there is good average wind speed throughout the year, wind mills can provide very cheap power either at the community level or at the individual house holds level.
Such decentralised power systems have the potential to meet most of the rural loads when they are used in hybrid mode of one or more individual systems, and can provide many other sustainable benefits:
Will greatly reduce the burden on the grid based power supply system; drastically reduce the T&D losses; and vastly improve the power supply to those consumers essentially needing the grid supply;
Will drastically reduce the need for fossil fuel based, dam based power stations and the associated transmission & distribution network;
Will assist in drastically reducing the GHG emissions;
Provide a sustainable, environmental and people friendly energy supply model;
Will accelerate the rural electrification due to shorter gestation period of individual projects;
Will lead to increase in rural employment opportunities, and hence in minimizing urban migration.
What can individuals /communities do to overcome the crises? The public including the industries, commerce, residences and institutions can undertake the following measures:
efficiency improvement measures to optimise the electricity consumption;
energy auditing in industries to conserve energy ; widespread usage of energy efficient CFLamps;
meet lighting, water heating and small pumping energy needs from solar energy;
minimum life cycle cost purchase of electrical equipment like motors, transformers, capacitors, lighting fixtures, refrigerators etc;
maximize the benefits from time-of-day (TOD) tariffs; night time water heating, night time use of large ovens etc. co-operative society concept to meet the energy needs of a group of industries, as in an Industrial Estate;
consider setting up a captive gas fired power generator to cater to a group of industries to eliminate the uncertainties associated with grid supply;
widespread use of renewable energy sources wherever feasible;
opt for decentralized electricity supply system by a combination of solar, wind and bio mass for individual small scale industries OR communities;
lobbying for policy changes for adequate investment in T&D sector, efficiency improvement, demand side management, subsidy on NCEs, rationalization of tariff for agricultural sector, energy conservation in homes, offices, schools, street lights, decorative purposes, etc.
industries can explore Carbon Trading by adopting innovative electricity saving measures;
educational campaign on the need for high efficiency and energy conservation;
participate effectively in important decision making; understand the rationale behind major policy decisions;
encourage public debate on all major energy related issues;
lobby for legislation on effective public consultation on all major policy issues.
Conclusions – ensuring energy security Since the country has not reached a mature stage in the development of electricity infrastructure unlike the case of developed countries, there is a very good opportunity to learn from others’ mistakes and adopt a suitable model for the country. The multitude of crises facing the electricity industry in India must be converted into an opportunity to herald a new era where social and environmental responsibilities will occupy the highest priority; where long term sustainability of the development path is well considered; and where the equity and energy justice is ensured for all sections of our society.
Whereas the grid based centralized generation system has failed to meet the basic energy needs of the majority of the country’s rural population, the same is proving to be very costly to the society in the form of economic, social and environmental impacts.
A paradigm shift is needed in the way we look at energy options; not just as some business models only but as sustainable developmental tools. There can be no doubt that the country will come under increasing international pressure to contain its GHG emissions.
Taking all the relevant issues into objective account the best option for the country towards a sustainable future electricity supply is to take an ‘integrated energy resource management approach’ where the world best practices are deployed in the existing system, and decentralized supply options based on renewable energy sources are widely adopted to cater to most of the future loads.
Article by: Shankar Sharma Consultant to Electricity Industry
Synopsis: Greenpeace India recently released a survey report on the discrimination prevailing in the supply of electricity to rural and urban areas. This report “Still Waiting” demonstrates, on the basis of survey conducted in five states, that the rural India is being neglected even after 62 years of independence as far as electricity supply is concerned, and provides useful recommendations to over come the same. The author was involved in the preparation of that report. This article is based on the main points of that report. ———————
Energy Injustice in India
The deleterious impacts of man made Climate Change as a consequence of Global Warming are no more seen as theory; they are already being experienced in many ways. The Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has listed the potential impacts of Global Warming as: famines and droughts; worldwide drop in crops; risk of flooding and scarcity of fresh water supplies; sea levels rise; huge impact on general health etc. These impacts are projected to have massive influence on the lives of millions of people living in tropical countries such as India.
Energy consumption is closely associated with substantial part of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions leading to Global Warming. Of various forms of energy electricity alone is responsible for about 42% of global CO2 emissions and about 24% of all GHG emissions. Fossil fuel burning for generation of electricity is one of the main causes of GHG emissions.
India’s low per capita electricity consumption, as also of other developing countries, is being offered as the main argument in favor of larger carbon space for India. When we consider the fact that for about 40% of such a large population the commercial energy is out of reach even after 6 decades of independence the gravity of the situation becomes crystal clear. If we aim to provide energy security to our growing population in a business-as-usual scenario, the pollution level in our country will be enormous. As per Greenpeace’s projection India’s contribution to the global CO2 emissions will increase from about 1,126 million tons in 2003 to approximately 4,039 million tons in 2050, increasing its share in global emissions from 4.8% to 8.7% in a business as usual scenario.
While it may appear logical that India should argue for common but differentiated responsibilities for each country to reduce country specific GHG emissions, its own record of energy consumption by two broad categories of citizens should be of grave concern. Energy profligacy by the rich and lack of access to commercial energy for the poor within India should be of a major concern. India has a primary obligation to its own people to do all that is possible to minimize the impact of climate change. As per Greenpeace report “Hiding Behind the Poor” much of India’s population, which is in lowest income group, have per capita CO2 emissions of about 335 kg, while a small section of the population with the highest income group have per capita CO2 emissions of about 1,500 kg.
The Integrated Energy Policy as developed by the Planning Commission has projected that “to sustain a growth rate of 8% through 2031-32 and to meet the lifeline energy needs of the poor, India needs, at the very least, to increase the power generation capacity to nearly 800,000 MW from the current capacity of about 160,000 MW inclusive of all captive power plants.” In this context it is important to note that more than 70% of such additional capacity is projected to be coal based. Hiding Behind the Poor, the successive governments have embarked on a major capacity addition drive based on fossil fuels and dams since last few decades.
Such a large scale addition of conventional power capacity in a short period will have profound impact on social, environmental and economic aspects of our society. The massive amount of coal burning; the large requirement of fresh water and land to support this much of additional power capacity will not only devastate our environment but will also push the vulnerable sections of our society to destitution, because of displacement, lack of fresh water and threat to livelihood.
While India is asking for adequate Carbon space for its poor to develop, it is finding it impossible to provide electricity to its poor through the business-as-usual model, even though huge sums of money are being poured in additional conventional technology power stations. Whereas the middle and upper classes of its population are rapidly catching up with the high per capita electricity consumption levels of the developed countries, the poor and the vulnerable in rural areas are yet to get even the life line electrical energy.
A study on Rural – Urban divide Greenpeace India undertook a study recently to expose the electricity injustice within India. To compare the electricity supply scenario in rural and urban populations, relevant data were sought from 5 different states from four regions of the country. In each of theses states one tier A city, one tier B city, and three villages were chosen for survey in this regard. None of the 15 villages covered in the survey were found to have 100% electrification. Even in those villages, where the official records indicate more than 50% electrification of households, the supply is so bad that the per capita electricity consumption is abysmally low. Most of the villages covered in the survey have per capita electricity consumption less than 100, which almost negates the very purpose of electrification. Most states consider one unit a day as the lifeline energy requirement for a family.
The worst part of such a poor supply to the villages is that there is neither a regularity nor it is provided when the people need it most. Generally the power supply is provided in the afternoon hours and late night hours, when it is not of much use for the villagers. Additionally, the low voltage conditions and frequent interruptions make the electrification a cruel joke on the villagers.
This pathetic situation of villages is in stark contrast with the capital cities and urban areas, which have almost 100% electrification and enjoyed 22 to 24 hours of much better quality supply. This objective survey of the villages, under the title “Still Waiting”, has revealed that with 100% house hold electrification and 24 hours of supply each of these villages can attain a much better quality of life style, drastically reducing the need for urban migration and slums.
The Electricity Injustice for the rural population of the country can be exemplified by the facts in the box below.
( In Karnataka between 1999 and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 70%; energy consumption has gone up by 95%; per capita consumption has gone up by 76%. But 356 villages remained unelectrified. In Maharastra between 1999 and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 54%; energy consumption has gone up by 54%; per capita consumption has gone up by 32%. But 5,018 villages remained unelectrified. In Uttar Pradesh between 1997and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 58%; energy consumption has gone up by 53%; per capita consumption has gone up by 6%. But 12,298 villages remained unelectrified. )
About 40% of the entire population in India, almost all of which in rural areas, are still without access to any commercial form of energy including electricity. Even few households in a village, having electrical connection, get power supply only during some parts of the say. Whereas the demand and supply of electricity to towns and cities have been increasing at a tremendous rate, the rural areas are unable to meet even their basic needs for lighting and agriculture.
( The total installed generating capacity in the country has gone up
from 58,012 MW in 1989 to 1,52,148 MW in 2009, a whopping 162% increase. Total monthly generation from conventional sources has increased from 43,596 MU in March 2000 to 65,057 MU in March 2008, an increase of about 50%. National per capita electricity consumption has gone up from 283 kWH in 1992-93 to 429 in 2005-06, an increase of 52%. But 40% of the households, mostly in rural areas, have no access to electricity even in 2009. )
A thorough analysis of the power sector in the country provides real reasons for this gross neglect of rural areas. Huge inefficiencies prevailing in generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity are at the root of the larger problem. These inefficiencies alone, which are typical characteristics of a badly managed grid based centralized electricity generation system, amount to a total loss in the range of 25-40% of the installed capacity. Few effective measures such as improving the generating plant performance; reducing the T&D losses; minimizing the wastage in usage; demand side management (DSM); energy conservation have all tremendous potential to overcome the deficits.
Sustainability of centralised supply system and conventional power plants Inherent with a grid based centralized generation system are the need for long lengths of transmission lines, complex network of distribution systems, and the associated equipment such as transformers. Each of these add to the complexity, reduced reliability and increased capital & operational costs. These centralized generation systems also are found to be economical only with large size power plants and concentrated loads. But Indian villages are wide spread and cannot provide any substantial loads individually as in the case of towns and cities.
The centralized generation/distribution model has inherent problems attached to it in terms of equity also. In a case of power shortage it will be the rural poor that are suffering. The poor is the last to get power (Last In) and the first to get shut out of power (First Out). Clearly the present model is not the best way forward in any welfare society.
( Whereas the grid based centralized generation system has failed to meet the basic energy needs of the majority of the country’s population, who are living in rural areas, few recent initiatives in the private sector to provide electricity to un-electrified villages through stand alone community based non-conventional energy power plants fed by bio-mass OR wind OR solar OR micro-hydel power have established that they are the appropriate solution to the energy requirements of most sections of the country. The major advantages which are associated with these alternatives are the shorter gestation periods, low societal impacts, and their immense suitability to rural needs. )
There is clearly an urgent need for a paradigm shift in our energy policy: instead of blindly adding millions of MW of additional capacity based on conventional power sources and centralized power supply system, we need to adopt an ‘integrated energy resource management’ approach which will have renewable energy sources and decentralized supply systems at its core.
There are growing indications that in view of the huge societal costs associated with economic, social and environmental aspects of grid based centralized generation system of conventional power sources, the decentralized electric supply systems based on renewable energy sources are hugely economical in the long run and the best option for the accelerated electrification of rural house holds.
A thorough review of the existing practices in the way power sector is managed will reveal that there is huge scope for improvement before we can catch up with the world best practices: whether it is in improving the generating plant performance, OR reducing the T&D losses; OR minimizing the wastage in usage, OR demand side management (DSM); OR energy conservation. Adequate funds should be made available to realise this potential before 2015 to enable peaking of GHG emissions in the power sector. Few recent initiatives in the private sector to provide electricity to un-electrified villages through stand alone community based non-conventional energy power plants fed by bio-mass OR wind OR solar OR micro-hydel power should be replicated at a wider scale throughout the country on a priority basis.
Conclusions: In summary, an objective overview of the electricity scenario in the country provides a sad picture of electricity injustice of huge proportions, which is not leading to the welfare of the rural communities. Unless urgent corrective measures are taken to set right this injustice the overall development of the country will greatly suffer, while accelerating the addition of GHG emissions against our own national as well as global interests.
Grid based centralized generation system is considered by the successive governments as the solution for faster economic growth and accelerated rural electrification, but in reality the same is observed to be helping largely to meet the ever growing electricity demand of urban population. The deficiencies, complexities and costs inherent in the grid based centralized generation system in India cannot provide any assurance that the rural-urban divide will be eliminated soon and that the electricity supply at the national level will be satisfactory in the near future. The decentralized energy solutions are the right answers to provide quality access to electricity to the rural population.
The poverty alleviation, rural electrification, decentralized electricity supply system based on renewable energy sources, human development, mitigation and adoption to Climate Change are all intricately linked and hence need to be addressed with an integrated approach.
Synopsis: Greenpeace India recently released a survey report on the discrimination prevailing in the supply of electricity to rural and urban areas. This report “Still Waiting” demonstrates, on the basis of survey conducted in five states, that the rural India is being neglected even after 62 years of independence as far as electricity supply is concerned, and provides useful recommendations to over come the same. The author was involved in the preparation of that report. This article is based on the main points of that report. ———————
Energy Injustice in India
The deleterious impacts of man made Climate Change as a consequence of Global Warming are no more seen as theory; they are already being experienced in many ways. The Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has listed the potential impacts of Global Warming as: famines and droughts; worldwide drop in crops; risk of flooding and scarcity of fresh water supplies; sea levels rise; huge impact on general health etc. These impacts are projected to have massive influence on the lives of millions of people living in tropical countries such as India.
Energy consumption is closely associated with substantial part of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions leading to Global Warming. Of various forms of energy electricity alone is responsible for about 42% of global CO2 emissions and about 24% of all GHG emissions. Fossil fuel burning for generation of electricity is one of the main causes of GHG emissions.
India’s low per capita electricity consumption, as also of other developing countries, is being offered as the main argument in favor of larger carbon space for India. When we consider the fact that for about 40% of such a large population the commercial energy is out of reach even after 6 decades of independence the gravity of the situation becomes crystal clear. If we aim to provide energy security to our growing population in a business-as-usual scenario, the pollution level in our country will be enormous. As per Greenpeace’s projection India’s contribution to the global CO2 emissions will increase from about 1,126 million tons in 2003 to approximately 4,039 million tons in 2050, increasing its share in global emissions from 4.8% to 8.7% in a business as usual scenario.
While it may appear logical that India should argue for common but differentiated responsibilities for each country to reduce country specific GHG emissions, its own record of energy consumption by two broad categories of citizens should be of grave concern. Energy profligacy by the rich and lack of access to commercial energy for the poor within India should be of a major concern. India has a primary obligation to its own people to do all that is possible to minimize the impact of climate change. As per Greenpeace report “Hiding Behind the Poor” much of India’s population, which is in lowest income group, have per capita CO2 emissions of about 335 kg, while a small section of the population with the highest income group have per capita CO2 emissions of about 1,500 kg.
The Integrated Energy Policy as developed by the Planning Commission has projected that “to sustain a growth rate of 8% through 2031-32 and to meet the lifeline energy needs of the poor, India needs, at the very least, to increase the power generation capacity to nearly 800,000 MW from the current capacity of about 160,000 MW inclusive of all captive power plants.” In this context it is important to note that more than 70% of such additional capacity is projected to be coal based. Hiding Behind the Poor, the successive governments have embarked on a major capacity addition drive based on fossil fuels and dams since last few decades.
Such a large scale addition of conventional power capacity in a short period will have profound impact on social, environmental and economic aspects of our society. The massive amount of coal burning; the large requirement of fresh water and land to support this much of additional power capacity will not only devastate our environment but will also push the vulnerable sections of our society to destitution, because of displacement, lack of fresh water and threat to livelihood.
While India is asking for adequate Carbon space for its poor to develop, it is finding it impossible to provide electricity to its poor through the business-as-usual model, even though huge sums of money are being poured in additional conventional technology power stations. Whereas the middle and upper classes of its population are rapidly catching up with the high per capita electricity consumption levels of the developed countries, the poor and the vulnerable in rural areas are yet to get even the life line electrical energy.
A study on Rural – Urban divide Greenpeace India undertook a study recently to expose the electricity injustice within India. To compare the electricity supply scenario in rural and urban populations, relevant data were sought from 5 different states from four regions of the country. In each of theses states one tier A city, one tier B city, and three villages were chosen for survey in this regard. None of the 15 villages covered in the survey were found to have 100% electrification. Even in those villages, where the official records indicate more than 50% electrification of households, the supply is so bad that the per capita electricity consumption is abysmally low. Most of the villages covered in the survey have per capita electricity consumption less than 100, which almost negates the very purpose of electrification. Most states consider one unit a day as the lifeline energy requirement for a family.
The worst part of such a poor supply to the villages is that there is neither a regularity nor it is provided when the people need it most. Generally the power supply is provided in the afternoon hours and late night hours, when it is not of much use for the villagers. Additionally, the low voltage conditions and frequent interruptions make the electrification a cruel joke on the villagers.
This pathetic situation of villages is in stark contrast with the capital cities and urban areas, which have almost 100% electrification and enjoyed 22 to 24 hours of much better quality supply. This objective survey of the villages, under the title “Still Waiting”, has revealed that with 100% house hold electrification and 24 hours of supply each of these villages can attain a much better quality of life style, drastically reducing the need for urban migration and slums.
The Electricity Injustice for the rural population of the country can be exemplified by the facts in the box below.
( In Karnataka between 1999 and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 70%; energy consumption has gone up by 95%; per capita consumption has gone up by 76%. But 356 villages remained unelectrified. In Maharastra between 1999 and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 54%; energy consumption has gone up by 54%; per capita consumption has gone up by 32%. But 5,018 villages remained unelectrified. In Uttar Pradesh between 1997and 2009 the available power capacity has gone up by 58%; energy consumption has gone up by 53%; per capita consumption has gone up by 6%. But 12,298 villages remained unelectrified. )
About 40% of the entire population in India, almost all of which in rural areas, are still without access to any commercial form of energy including electricity. Even few households in a village, having electrical connection, get power supply only during some parts of the say. Whereas the demand and supply of electricity to towns and cities have been increasing at a tremendous rate, the rural areas are unable to meet even their basic needs for lighting and agriculture.
( The total installed generating capacity in the country has gone up
from 58,012 MW in 1989 to 1,52,148 MW in 2009, a whopping 162% increase. Total monthly generation from conventional sources has increased from 43,596 MU in March 2000 to 65,057 MU in March 2008, an increase of about 50%. National per capita electricity consumption has gone up from 283 kWH in 1992-93 to 429 in 2005-06, an increase of 52%. But 40% of the households, mostly in rural areas, have no access to electricity even in 2009. )
A thorough analysis of the power sector in the country provides real reasons for this gross neglect of rural areas. Huge inefficiencies prevailing in generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity are at the root of the larger problem. These inefficiencies alone, which are typical characteristics of a badly managed grid based centralized electricity generation system, amount to a total loss in the range of 25-40% of the installed capacity. Few effective measures such as improving the generating plant performance; reducing the T&D losses; minimizing the wastage in usage; demand side management (DSM); energy conservation have all tremendous potential to overcome the deficits.
Sustainability of centralised supply system and conventional power plants Inherent with a grid based centralized generation system are the need for long lengths of transmission lines, complex network of distribution systems, and the associated equipment such as transformers. Each of these add to the complexity, reduced reliability and increased capital & operational costs. These centralized generation systems also are found to be economical only with large size power plants and concentrated loads. But Indian villages are wide spread and cannot provide any substantial loads individually as in the case of towns and cities.
The centralized generation/distribution model has inherent problems attached to it in terms of equity also. In a case of power shortage it will be the rural poor that are suffering. The poor is the last to get power (Last In) and the first to get shut out of power (First Out). Clearly the present model is not the best way forward in any welfare society.
( Whereas the grid based centralized generation system has failed to meet the basic energy needs of the majority of the country’s population, who are living in rural areas, few recent initiatives in the private sector to provide electricity to un-electrified villages through stand alone community based non-conventional energy power plants fed by bio-mass OR wind OR solar OR micro-hydel power have established that they are the appropriate solution to the energy requirements of most sections of the country. The major advantages which are associated with these alternatives are the shorter gestation periods, low societal impacts, and their immense suitability to rural needs. )
There is clearly an urgent need for a paradigm shift in our energy policy: instead of blindly adding millions of MW of additional capacity based on conventional power sources and centralized power supply system, we need to adopt an ‘integrated energy resource management’ approach which will have renewable energy sources and decentralized supply systems at its core.
There are growing indications that in view of the huge societal costs associated with economic, social and environmental aspects of grid based centralized generation system of conventional power sources, the decentralized electric supply systems based on renewable energy sources are hugely economical in the long run and the best option for the accelerated electrification of rural house holds.
A thorough review of the existing practices in the way power sector is managed will reveal that there is huge scope for improvement before we can catch up with the world best practices: whether it is in improving the generating plant performance, OR reducing the T&D losses; OR minimizing the wastage in usage, OR demand side management (DSM); OR energy conservation. Adequate funds should be made available to realise this potential before 2015 to enable peaking of GHG emissions in the power sector. Few recent initiatives in the private sector to provide electricity to un-electrified villages through stand alone community based non-conventional energy power plants fed by bio-mass OR wind OR solar OR micro-hydel power should be replicated at a wider scale throughout the country on a priority basis.
Conclusions: In summary, an objective overview of the electricity scenario in the country provides a sad picture of electricity injustice of huge proportions, which is not leading to the welfare of the rural communities. Unless urgent corrective measures are taken to set right this injustice the overall development of the country will greatly suffer, while accelerating the addition of GHG emissions against our own national as well as global interests.
Grid based centralized generation system is considered by the successive governments as the solution for faster economic growth and accelerated rural electrification, but in reality the same is observed to be helping largely to meet the ever growing electricity demand of urban population. The deficiencies, complexities and costs inherent in the grid based centralized generation system in India cannot provide any assurance that the rural-urban divide will be eliminated soon and that the electricity supply at the national level will be satisfactory in the near future. The decentralized energy solutions are the right answers to provide quality access to electricity to the rural population.
The poverty alleviation, rural electrification, decentralized electricity supply system based on renewable energy sources, human development, mitigation and adoption to Climate Change are all intricately linked and hence need to be addressed with an integrated approach.
Human society has been experiencing a suffocating and depressing situation in community living the world over. The conflict between nationalities and ideologies is sapping our creative energies in various spheres of life. In the name of human progress and prosperity, people of affluence and authority are committing all sorts of atrocities. In the name of national integrity, people are being butchered and massacred. In the name of political liberties and freedom of expression, man is subjected to economic exploitation. In the name of economic equality, people are deprived of their political liberty and freedom of expression.
(Apart from physical, social, emotional and spiritual aspect, the price that we have to pay in economic affairs of man for such conflicts and confrontations is staggering. Every year billions and billions of rupees and substantial proportion of human energy are being wasted in producing destructive weapons of war, which become junk after a couple of years. If these resources and energies could be put to creative and productive purposes, human society could enjoy unimaginable affluence and freedom.)
MAN’S NATURE
We had been thinking as to what could be the way out of these frustrations and inhuman situation. We feel that there has been an incorrect assessment of human nature, which has been a major factor in perpetuating this state of affairs. In order to reach the desired goal, we should have a proper understanding of human nature vis-a-vis the rest of creation. At the instinctive level of preservation and propagation of the species, all living creatures are qualitatively similar; though quantitatively different. (The different patterns and techniques in method of preservation and propagation of species come under quantitative difference.). But the vegetable and animal worlds have one difference in quality: members of animal world can move, while members of the vegetable world cannot move. Movement is common, so the qualitative difference between man’s world and the animal’s world lies in the inquisitiveness of men, which can better be defined as quest for knowledge or reality.
This quest for knowledge or reality is the mainspring of man’s evolution towards a higher level of life; it is also the main drive of progress in the realms of religion, philosophy, science, technology and other spheres of life. Thus any political, social or economic system which throttles the quest of man in any sphere of life in the name of national or ideological unity would perpetuate tensions and conflicts between man and man between different social and political groups.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
We feel that if we could shape the structure of our socio-economic institutions on the basis of rationality, radically different from the existing ones of nationality and ideology, we could create a universal system. Before we proceed further, let us analyse stages of social development. It began as a tribal society. In this form of society, blood provides the bond of relationship between man and man. The people of the same tribe accept each other as fellow beings and equals. The members of stronger tribes were taken as demi-gods. The weaker tribes were considered to be sub-human, to be subjugated and used as slaves or for inferior work.
Subsequently, as the human mind developed philosophically, man felt that all human beings were qualitatively equal. Due to lack of communication all races of man could not contact one another. Hence people living in different territories, where communication was easy, formed themselves into different national groups and developed their friendly or inimical attitudes towards other national groups.
This could not satisfy higher urges of man and thus began the search for a uniform formula, which could translate qualitative equality into socio-economic and political institutions. Prophets, thinkers and reformers put forward different ideologies to achieve this end. Consequently, societies based on different ideologies were formed (Islam and Christianity, like Marxism, partake of the nature of ideology ). Tension and conflicts developed. These tensions and conflicts have become endemic in many parts of the world.
In this part of the world, we inherited a society whose rationality was based on universal values. Different ideologies about the universe, cosmos and future of man were accepted as subjective and dimensional expressions of a multi-dimensional reality. Thus even conflicting ideologies become complimentary to each other at a higher plane as different dimensions of the same reality. However, in spite of the rationality of universal values and the conceptual equality of man, equality in socio-economic spheres could not be achieved. The growth of specialisation in occupations and methods of production led to social inequalities and economic disparities. These were perpetuated by the oral system of preservation and communication of knowledge; primitive sources of energy were also responsible for continuation of these disparities and inequalities.
(Due to oral knowledge and employment of human beings and animals as prime source of energy for the sake of efficiency and better production, occupation became hereditary and functional groups developed into social groups gradually assuming the form of castes. New technology broke the backbone of caste system; its’ economic aspect has become totally redundant and it is losing its effectiveness and utility as a social group also.)
NEW DIRECTION
Now, however, new technology, based on new sources of energy, the printing press and mass media of education and communication have given powerful weapons in the hand of man to build an egalitarian socio-economic system on a universal basis. We could evolve an ideal universal system. To begin with, instead of mall national and warring ideological states, we could form bigger regional units, comprising such areas and people whose sensibilities and medium of expression are similar and common to a great extent. The underlying rationality of these regional units will be universal values. These regions could be the Himalayan Subcontinent consisting of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Ceylon, Nepal and Burma; the Arabic speaking states; Western Europe; the U.S.A and Canada; Latin America; the Balkan States and so on.
For bringing this regional unity into existence, the first step would be free movement, without passports and visas, within such regions where the sensibilities and the medium of expression are common and similar. Secondly, a single economic community based on equality could evolve. Thirdly, a political unit could be established. The political forms of regions could be decided by consensus of different people who will group together. Gradually these regions will merge into a common universal society based on universal values and evolving norms, basis being compassion and love.
FUTURE SOCIETY
The rationality of the new human society will be universal values, such as
seeking a reality, which is multi-dimensional and expresses itself in newer and newer forms,
equality of man in every sphere of life.
In such a society, men will be bound to one another through love and harmony, unlike today’s society where fear of a common enemy huddles us together. Means of production will be community-owned and wealth produced will be common property to all. Modern forms of governments whose main business is defence, external affairs and internal administration will have very little role to play in such a society. Corporate elected bodies could be evolved to coordinate and manage various spheres of human activity.
We know that those who have vested interests in the existing scheme of things and are controlling the levers of power directly and indirectly will oppose us to the utmost with their organised ability. We fully understand their capacity to create mischief and terror but we will face in a non-violent manner all that may confront us in our struggle for a new future for humankind. As we have faith in the inherent goodness of man (evil is a by-product of circumstances and is born out of ignorance), we accept the humane weapon of non-violence and non-cooperation as our only means to achieve our ends. This weapon will have to be evolved in a scientific way through constant struggles so that it may be used in future for settling all human disputes replacing the present mode of violent conflicts.
THE SUBCONTINENT
A world-wide non-violent movement has to be created for the regional re-organisation of human society but as people belonging to the region of the Himalayan subcontinent, we have, primarily, to undertake the task of organising this region. Before we proceed further, let us analyse the social situation, political and administrative complexities as they exist today. In the major portion of the subcontinent in India and Pakistan, the Hindu-Muslim confrontation persists in various spheres of life. It receives its nourishment from the existing administrative and political arrangements known by the name of the Indian Government and Pakistan Government. The British were forced to give up colonial possession of the Indian subcontinent under the pressure of the Independence movement and the aftermath of the Second World War, which made the Empire economically unsustainable.
However, they contrived the transfer of power in a manner, which enabled them to control the political strings while transferring to the people only administrative power. Our leaders, in their eagerness to control the administrative structure, fumbled during negotiations for the transfer of powers. Their short-sightedness led the people into trap laid by the British imperialists. And to this day both Indian and Pakistan, because of their confrontation in various spheres, wait on other nations, big or small, for favours in their family disputes thus eroding their political strength. Except for playing minor roles as brokers in the political arena of the world, they have not been able to contribute politically towards world peace and prosperity, in spite of their numerical strength, geographical situation, cultural tradition and economic potential.
Our leaders blamed each other for the cruel vivisection of the area. Congress leadership lays the blame on the leadership of the Muslim League for its communal outlook; but mockery of accusation is apparent by the fact that when it was a question of Muslims living in Hindu-majority India, they opposed division, but when it became a question of Hindus living in Muslim majority areas of Punjab and Bengal, they demanded vivisection of the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The vivisection of Punjab and Bengal had disastrous aftermath in terms of killing and up-rooting millions of innocent people in these areas.
The present crisis in Bengal is more connected with the unnatural division of Bengal and Punjab than the partition of the subcontinent. After the eventual withdrawal of Pakistani forces from Bangladesh, Punjabi Muslims will face a horrible situation of isolation in their truncated homeland of West Punjab, which is neither economically viable nor has any outlet to the outside world. This fear of impending isolation blunts the finer sensibility of their leadership and human suffering does not touch them. It is a pursuit of their parochial vested interest which has led to the genocide in Bangladesh in the name of Islam. In the long run, however, the Punjabi forces will have to withdraw from Bengal under the pressure of continuing non-cooperation of the Bengali population and increasing guerrilla activities of Bengali patriot. If we want to quicken the pace of withdrawal of Pakistani forces and to mitigate sufferings of the people of Bangladesh, as well as to remove the impending isolation and frustrations of Punjabi Muslims, we should convince the latter that through Punjabis on the other side of the frontier, i.e. in India, they are bound in brotherhood and have common economic and cultural interest with the other people in the subcontinent. We should undertake activities which will promote this conviction and transform it into a reality.
After the Hindu-Muslim confrontation is resolved in the Indo-Pak area, we could renew age-old ties with our Afghan brethren. The geopolitics and cultural traditions of India and Afghanistan were always bound in one thread, which the Britishers distorted and snapped for their political game. They had two motives behind it; the first to have a buffer between the Indian Empire and the Russian Empire, and secondly the cripple the Indians from carrying their war of independence from Afghan territory. The printing press and modern form of communications became their handmaiden in propagating fabricated and perverted lies, on a mass scale.
In older political tradition of the subcontinent, if Prithvi Raj was not foreign invader in Kannauj and Kalinjar, then how could Mohammad Ghori be branded as a foreign invader in Lahore and Delhi? The venom of hatred created in minds of the people in the name of religion is result of ignorance and has been perpetuated with sinister motive of dividing people. We resolve to remove this venom of hatred and sublimate it to creative purposes.
In spite of common cultural background and similar sensibility, difficulties of communication created by geographical barriers between Nepal, Ceylon, (Burma) and the other parts of the area contributed to the social and political isolation of these units. Modern means of communication should now be used to break isolation of these areas and to bring people nearer to each other. For this we should strive for free movement without passport and visas between these units.
Thus, through persuasion and enlightenment we can develop a common social economic and political system based on previously mentioned universal values for whole of the Himalayan subcontinent. For this end, if and when needed we may have to resort to non-violent struggles also.
Triloki Nath Purwar
Triloki Nath Purwar was a freedom fighter who participated in 1942 Quit India Movement and was imprisoned for about a year. He participated in peoples movement in 1947 in Tehri Garhwal state against feudal order and was imprisoned.
After his release from jail he organized a successful non-violent people’s movement and dislodged Tehri Garhwal ruler and handed over the administration to the forces of Government of India. In mid 50’s he went for a study tour in Assam there he came in contact with Nagas and other tribal groups then onward he concentrated on the problems of North East. He came to Delhi and contacted leaders of the Central Government.
After their approval he started on a one man’s peace mission in Nagaland. The then Chief Minister of Assam did not appreciate the interference of central leadership in his domain so he was obstructed by state government and was put in jail on false charge of violating inner line regulation. After his release from imprisonment he continued on with the problem.
After ten years again in 1963 an understanding was reached between him and Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister of India. He went on a tour of Nagaland where he was able to persuade a sizeable number of people to his point of view. The nominated leadership who were heading the state administration felt insecure that they may not be able to find a place in an understanding interfered with his work and forcibly sent him to Shillong.
Triloki Nath Purwar came to Delhi and discussed the issue with Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister, who hesitated a bit. He then went to Nagaland and started a Satyagrah.
There he was arrested and imprisoned. He went on a fast which continued on for forty days, which be broke after a Peace Mission was announced for the Naga problem and state authorities were instructed to make arrangements for travel of Triloki Nath Purwar to either to Bhubaneshwar (where Congress Party was holding its annual session), Allahabad or New Delhi as Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister, wanted to see him. He reached Bhubaneshwar but he could not see the prime minister as Prime Minister had a paralytic attack.
Peace Mission started its activities and Triloki Nath Purwar continued on communicating with his contacts of Naga rebels. Peace mission failed because its member could not understand the Naga psyche and establish a rapport with them.
And after that for a few decades he dedicated himself to studies, meditation and contemplation. After achieving a understanding on clarity about his future work, he has decided to resume his activities again for a cause of harmonious human society.
He initiated an idea of half million non-violence peace volunteers for stopping wars in the world.
Triloki Nath Purwar was active in Bangladesh Movement also. After the independence of the country he never accepted the membership of any political party. He never voted in general elections, he never participated in electoral politics because according to him some aspects of constitution of India are not in harmony with people’s interest.
The paper which was presented in Budapest Hungary by Fr Anto Paul-
The conflict context or development context of the Naga polity
Nagas are unique people with its culture, people, religion, habitat and worldview and polity but Naga’s context of development or context of conflict and brief history through which it is developing over the last 5 decades as indigenous people with distinctive identity in the international community can only be understood in relation with India which is also developing as the largest democratic and powerful country in the world during the same period. For the Naga the last five decades has been a tragic history of war and bloodsheds without and within that took thousands of lives and generations of youth times. Wisdom seems to have finally dawned upon us after decades of bloody experiences. Today, Churches, factions, political parties, youth, women and all civil society organizations are all working together on the path of reconciliation processes. It is in this context I present you a growing first generation of peace channels that is set to shape Naga society as human rights aware and a strong community while existing as a unique people in the international community. The challenge we took to ourselves today is transformation of Naga society to be a source of human rights awareness and good governance from having been known as the source of insurgency related violence in South Asian region.
Major achievements that inspire us to move on is India government recognizing the ‘Uniqueness’ of Naga as an outcome of a decade long peace talks since 1997. Every Naga today is proud of being Naga as the peace processes has established their identity in the international community. This recognition creates a space to bring together a deeply divided Naga society; across ideologies, factions, parties and tribes as never before. But the path to integration or for that matter coming together of different groups of people and communities in Naga society is beset with huge challenges and problems. The memories of mutual destructions, violence and killings and sufferings between factions, the growing social and economic divides; the so called advance and backward tribes, competition over leadership and diversity of languages, tribe identities and religious differences, the narrow tribal outlooks and related distrusts can prove to be major hurdles. Outside the Naga community how do we relate with neighboring communities without intimidations or threats or violence so so as to have peaceful co-existence where every Naga for that matter people from different neighboring communities feels safe and secure where ever s/he moves in Nagaland and the region. How do we at the same time re-orient the younger generations to a new work culture to get engaged in productive activities from white color job to farming activities and dignified life with sense of community responsibility and duty for making Naga a food secure-self reliant community from an a situation of war-ravaged acutely dependent economy? How do Naga position and respond to India’s Look East Policy frame and development processes from the west on one hand and Chinese and other Southeast Asian growing market influence from east on the other? How does Naga society with its diversely rich natural forest, minerals, herbal, natural and cultural resources contribute to the growing South East and South Asian economy and reap benefits from it for greater development and advancement of its people? These are some of the questions/ challenges beset in shaping the Naga society as we enter the world of 3rd millennium.
Human rights situation
In a region known for it’s racial, religious traditions, linguistic cultural diversities and hostilities where people lived in relative isolation for better part of their history with sporadic contacts for war and /or bartering or trading activities human rights as defined in UDHR (1948) has been a new concept. Our diversities, tribal and factional differences have been great barriers to realization of human rights within communities and across. Furthermore, when different tribes and communities across and with India began to interact or slowly come together from their relative isolations they began do it with hostilities and wars that caused bitter experiences in the minds of the people.
Unfortunately, the fact that Government of Independent India that took over the Nagas against their wills promising fundamental human rights enshrined and rooms for self-determination within its Constitution also became the major source of human rights violation and violence over the last 50 years in its fight against the armed Naga -nationalists. Even after two peace accords Armed Forces Special Power Act (1958) that gives swiping power to non-commission officer to kill on suspicion and rob dignity of people became the most effective instrument of human rights violation still in use in the region. This instrument has been even more lethal and detrimental to human society when it is used across racial and cultural lines – Indo-Aryan forces operating in the Northeastern region of people belonging to Mongoloid of Southeastern Asian backgrounds. This makes human rights movements in the region perceived as anti-India political movement closely associated with the anti-India armed rebellion or secessionists.
Human rights movements in the region have also been closely linked to community identities even when they may have universal appeals. For every community or tribe or political organization there seems to be a human rights organization. The strongest and most influential human rights organizations have also been those that are closely associated to a political or community identity. Naga People’s Movement Human Rights itself has been one of the most pioneering, effective and influential organization in the region. Similarly, there are many other human rights organizations for different communities and their political causes. We also have a regional level human rights network organization but they have been a weak in effects and influence. Besides these each and every ethnic community and tribes have their own alliances and strong in-group solidarity and armed groups with strong political aspiration behind them. These factors further compound the human rights situation and leave no space for civil society movement for human rights and human rights education. Most of the armed groups have zero tolerance against dissidence or differences. Thousands of lives are already lost in in-fighting, political assassinations and factional killings among different armed groups. Such a human right situation makes community or a particular group’s rights more important than human rights of individual persons in the society.
However much demoralizing and discouraging the situation may be the silent invasion of HIV and AIDS as an invisible enemy that (Nagaland and neighboring state of Manipur being the worst hit states) poses to threaten survival of small indigenous populations from within can only be defended with greater human rights awareness, skills and practices, and women empowerment. Civil society, Church and Women groups must reclaim / create its space and position in the society and be respected and recognized of the critical roles they play in the on going reconciliatory processes of shaping future of Naga.<
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Human rights dilemma
Human Right Education must equip the present generation with life skills for self protection, preservation and progress and building goodwill and relations with others with different cultural identities in the manner that mutually ensures and enriches human rights awareness and practices. Human rights education must overcome factional differences and inter-tribal feuds, and transcend tribal, communal, racial and cultural diversities and transform the culture of violence.
It may well be said that Naga society has solid foundation for human rights already as results of decades of efforts put in by Christian missionaries, western education and human rights organizations that came along it and nurtured generations of people for over the last one century. This is the strength and inspirations for all of us today as we gather here to recognize and celebrate our strengths for peace, today. However, to prepare the present generation of youth as channels of peace through human rights education and life skills we needed an alternative discourse, a space to experience a culture of peace nurtured with our own local resources. The project Peace Channel is all about this alternative discourse and living new experiences.
Peace Channel: Alternative space
Peace channel began in September 2006 in the state after it took shape and matured from a culture of violence in Nagaland through personal experiences. Peace channel is reaching out children in Nagaland and across states in India and nations making each child a channel for peace. Objectives of Peace Channel are Promotion of peace, love, and justice in conflict; empowerment marginalized sections of society to live in harmony with God, nature, and bringing out the potentials in each of being responsible, transparent, honest and diligent leaders; staying clean of Drugs and pre-marital sex; Facilitating collective learning, sharing for development; Accelerating socio-economic sustainable development for the poor and Facilitating collaboration and networking across boundaries.
Peace Channel promotes belief in One Supreme God: All are His Children; relationship; Mutuality; Co-sharing; Inner peace; Return to the source; Union and Righteousness; Forgiveness and reconciliation; concerns for other while being self responsible; Compassion with adversaries; Working for justice and healing. Propagate spirit of sacrifice for peace; Honoring inherent dignity and worth of every body; Keeping aside petty interests for common good and being Enthusiastic and committed. Voluntary service and Radical commitment to genuine human services; Readiness to accept individuals and communities as they are; Embracing differences and valuing others and Being open to oneself and others; Hospitality to strangers; Pastoral care for all; Reaching out to poor, weak and marginalized; Non-discrimination and Rediscovery of solidarity
Long-term goals include transformation of Nagaland to a place of peace and Making India a model for peace in South Asia. Short-term goals include Setting up Peace Channel Units to form Model Peace Zone; Nagaland People Forum for Peace (NPFP) and Model Peace Region.
Preparing the young generation of children and people in communities towards a transformed society is doen through several activities such as formation of Peace Clubs in schools/colleges and villages; inter-religious dialogue and harmony; Action for locality development; Promoting Art and technique of living together with immediate neighbors; training for youths, students, employees, and professionals; seminars, symposium, training on Life skills; Outreaching to education to less privilege sections of society and Advocacy and human rights awareness. It is believed that through these activities there shall be Peaceful minds; ecumenical Harmony through inter-religious dialogue; Creating peace at homes and workplaces; Dealing with Lust, Anger, Greed, Hatred, Envy, Jealousy, Ill-will, Worry, Stress and strains; Participation in national events and Protection of environment.
Peace Club and its processes:
Peace clubs in school/ Community is the basic foundation for social transformation at grass roots level. It comprises of 15 Members with local contributions and lifetime membership and conducts fortnightly regular meeting. Peace clubs engages in advocacy and awareness; conflict transformation; addressing local conflicts and violence and promoting peaceful co-existence. The club meets 2-3 times a month regularly. Whenever members of club meet they start by greeting one another “Peace to you” and “Peace to you, too.” before sitting in a circle with a light candle in the middle. One among the member in the circle leads a peace prayer in any faith tradition of one’s pursuance and then followed with 7-Step group processes. It begins with a common peace prayer with each member touching the head of the person on the right. Second step is a short meditation which involves silent self awareness, and through breathing seeking reconciliation. Third step is life skills session on the any important situation/ issue/theme. In the forth step members identify a local issue, discuss and come up with a response action plan for implementation. Members then together evaluate the day’s process for further improvement as fifth step. Saying a peace pledge and singing anthem as sixth and seventh step as regular peace club meeting ends.
To conclude a peace channel is a project for social transformation that is inspired by human sufferings and higher values life and employs such methodologies and beliefs harnessed the deeper philosophies of religious scriptures to respond to the contemporary situation of violence culture. The project is a long term engagement with younger generations and civil society community where ever they are in participatory learning and change processes. The project will be successful when one day young people confidently say, “peace pays better in my life” from the present belief that says, “violence pays in life” for all the problems.
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